A backpack (also called rucksack, knapsack, packsack, pack, or Bergen) is, in its simplest form, a cloth sack carried on one's back and secured with two straps that go over the shoulders, but there can be exceptions. Light weight types of backpacks are sometimes worn on only one shoulder strap, or in the hand like an ordinary bag.
Backpacks are often preferred to handbags for carrying heavy loads, because of the limited capacity to carry heavy weights for long periods of time in the hands. Large backpacks, used to carry loads over 10 kg, usually offload the largest part (up to about 90%) of their weight onto padded hip belts, leaving the shoulder straps mainly for stabilising the load. This improves the potential to carry heavy loads, as the hips are stronger than the shoulders, and also increases agility and balance, since the load rides nearer the person's own center of mass.
In ancient times, the backpack was used as a means to carry the hunter's larger game and other types of prey as a way of easier transport. In the cases of larger hunts, the hunters would dismember their prey and distribute the pieces of the animal around each one packing the meat into many wrappings and then into a bag which they place on to their back. The bag itself was made up of different animal hide and skin (depending on what sorts of animals were in the area) and sewn together by the intestines of said animals, which were woven together tightly to make a sturdy thread-like material.
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Terminology
The word backpack was coined in the United States in the 1910s. Knapsack and packsack were used before; they now occur mainly as regionalisms in North America. The word rucksack is a German loanword mainly used in the UK: 'der Rücken' means 'the back' (the part of the body) in German. The name Rucksack is cognate with Danish Rygsæk, Norwegian Ryggsekk, Dutch Rugzak, and Swedish Ryggsäck. Alternative names include Haversack, and Bergen (from the manufacturer's name Bergens, used for a backpack supported by an external frame, usually associated with the British Armed Forces).
Backpacks can often simply be referred to as "packs", especially in outdoors contexts; though sometimes ambiguous compared to other bags such as saddlebags and duffel bags, context is generally sufficient for identification.
Backpack designs
Backpacks in general fall into one of three categories: frameless, external frame, and internal frame. A pack frame, when present, serves to support the pack and distribute the weight of its contents across the body more easily (generally by transferring much of the weight to the hips and legs), so most of the weight does not rest on the shoulders, restricting range of motion and possibly causing damage from pressure on the straps. Most are capable of being closed with either a buckle mechanism or a zipper, though a few models use a drawstring for the main compartment.
Frameless
The simplest backpack design is a bag attached to a set of shoulder straps. Such packs are used for general transportation of goods, and have variable capacity. The simplest designs consist of one main pocket. This maybe combined with webbing or cordage straps; while more sophisticated models add extra pockets, waist straps, chest straps, padded shoulder straps, padded backs, and sometimes reflective materials for added safety when the wearer is out at night. In general these packs can be produced inexpensively.
Some outdoors packs, particularly those sold for day hikes, ultralight backpacking and mountaineering are sometimes frameless as well.
External frame packs
The more traditional type of frame pack uses a rigid external frame which is strapped on the back and in turn carries and supports a cloth or leather sack and potentially strapped on items. External frames were traditionally used to carry heavy loads (20 kg / 40 lb and more), giving the wearer more support and protection and better weight distribution than a simple, frameless strapped bag. Wooden pack frames have been used for centuries around the world (Ötzi the Iceman may have used one in Copper Age Alpine Italy [1][2], though some archaeologists believe the frame found with the body was part of a snowshoe), and such gear was common in military and mountaineering applications right up to the 20th century [3]; metal versions first appeared in the mid-20th century, and plastic designs towards the turn of the 21st. Modern pack frames are usually made from lightweight metal tubes, generally aluminium but sometimes also using titanium or scandium alloys. The frame typically has a system of straps and pads to keep the sack and the frame from contacting the body. The open structure has the added benefit of improved ventilation and decreased sweatiness. The fabric part of the pack occupies part of the frame's length, but the frame typically protrudes above and below. These areas of the frame allow bulky items (such tents, sleeping bags, and thermal pads) to be strapped on. Thus the main compartment is smaller than that of an internal-frame pack, because bulky items (tents, sleeping bags, thermal pads) are strapped to the parts of the frame not occupied by the main compartment itself. This may result in a less smooth load (annoying in dense forest) and less control over the movement of the center of gravity of the pack. While less popular than internal-frame gear, some manufacturers (such as Kelty, Jansport, and Coleman) continue to produce external packs, and military packs are often external-frame designs as well.
Internal frame packs
An internal-frame pack has a large cloth section in which a small frame is integrated. This frame generally consists of strips of either metal or plastic that mold to one's back to provide a good fit, sometimes with additional metal stays to reinforce the frame. Usually a complex series of straps works with the frame to distribute the weight and hold it in place. The close fitting of the back section to the wearer's back allows the pack to be closely attached to the body, and gives a predictable movement of the load; on the downside, the tight fit reduces ventilation, so these type of packs tend to be more sweaty compared to external frame packs. The internal construction also allows for a large storage compartment. Internal-frame packs may provide a few lash points (including webbing loops and straps for sleeping bags and other large items), but as the frame is fully integrated and not available on the outside, it is difficult to lash a large, heavy item so that it stays fixed and does not bounce, so most cargo must fit inside. Internal-frame packs originally suffered from smaller load capacity and less comfortable fit during steady walking, but newer models have improved greatly in these respects. In addition, because of their snug fit, they ride better in activities that involve upper-body movement such as scrambling over rocky surfaces and skiing. The improved internal frame models have largely replaced external frame backpacks for many activities.
Backpacks in daily use
In many countries, backpacks are heavily identified with students, and are a primary means of transporting educational materials to and from school.[1] In this context they are sometimes known as bookbags or schoolbags. The purchase of a suitably fashionable, attractive, and useful backpack is a crucial back-to-school ritual for many students.[2]
Typical school backpacks generally lack the rigid frame of an outdoor-style backpack and include only a few pockets in addition to the main holding space of the pack. While traditionally very simple in design, school backpacks are often made with padded straps and backs as well as additional reinforcement to hold large numbers of heavy textbooks, as well as safety features such as reflective panels to make the wearer of the pack more visible at night. It is very common for schools (especially colleges and universities) to sell backpacks decorated with the school logo.
Specialist ergonomic back packs are available that are designed to protect young backs and distribute the weight across the strongest muscles and relieve pressure on the neck and spine.
Backpacks are sometimes worn as fashion accessories, in which they perform the same function as a purse.[3] Some such backpacks designed specifically for women are no larger than a typical purse, and are generally associated with younger, often college-age women.
Special-purpose backpacks
Camera backpack
Some backpacks are specifically designed to carry certain items. Common examples include backpacks for small, high-value items such as laptops and cameras (see photo);[4] backpacks designed to hold laptop computers in particular generally have a padded compartment to hold the computer and are especially common in college and university settings. It is also possible to buy "picnic basket" backpacks that come with plastic dishes and utensils, a tablecloth, etc. In order to supply these devices with electricity, some backpacks are equipped with solar panels.[5]
Backpacks (often made of clear plastic) are sometimes used as a type of packaging, particularly for educational toys and games targeted at children. In retail settings, loss prevention rules sometimes require employees to use clear plastic backpacks (as well as purses) to carry materials to and from work to prevent loss by employee theft.
There are also single-strap packs that are essentially a hybrid between a backpack and a messenger bag.
Inexpensive, very simple packs that combine the drawstring and straps into a single piece of cloth or webbing are occasionally sold for use at sporting events and the like. Some high-end retailers (notably Apple Stores) use a similar design for their shopping bags as well.
Rolling backpacks are backpacks with wheels on the bottom and an extending handle to ease carrying objects inside the backpacks. Because of its design, rolling backpacks reduce the strain on one's back, which is more ergonomic than regular backpacks, though rolling backpacks can be carried on the back as well.
Backpacks for professional use
Backpacks are a standard part of the carrying equipment of soldiers, especially infantry, in most countries, and military-style packs are regularly available to civilians in military surplus stores. Well-known examples include the United States ALICE field pack and the British Army PLCE rucksack attachment, both of which are widely available to civilian markets both as actual military surplus (new or used) and as replicas. Such packs are often, though not always (e.g. the USMC's ILBE pack), external-frame packs, with the pack itself lashed or pinned to a metal or plastic carrying frame.
Many police tactical units, as well as players of military-style combat games such as paintball and airsoft, use military-style backpacks and webbing for storing gear and ammunition. There is also a small but thriving industry devoted to creating historical reproductions of military gear; such companies generally produce period-appropriate uniforms and other gear in addition to backpacks.
Some more recent military/tactical designs, especially the MOLLE and ILBE packs used by the United States armed forces, are covered with webbing loop attachment points for increased carrying capacity.
Backpacks for leisure and travel
Backpacks are sometimes used as luggage, particularly as carry-on bags for airplane travel.
Backpacks form an essential part of the gear of the outdoor trekker and the urban backpacker, allowing more mobility and compactness than would be available to someone carrying most of their gear and clothing in a suitcase.
In addition to their use in outdoors pursuits, backpacks are sometimes used in other sports as well. Hydration packs, sometimes used by runners and bicyclists, carry water (in either a bladder or a rigid bottle) and have a tube connected to them from which the wearer can drink without removing the pack; this feature is also included in some more general-purpose hiking backpacks. Backpacks that carry skateboards have also become more popular in the youth culture.
Backpacks for outdoor activities
Large internal-frame backpack
One common special type of backpack (sometimes referred to as a "technical pack" or "frame pack") is designed for backpacking and other outdoors activities. These type of packs are more complex than most other backpacks. Compared to backpacks used for more day-to-day purposes such as schoolbooks, such packs are designed to carry substantially heavier loads, and as a result most such packs attach not only at the shoulders but at the hips, using a padded hip belt to distribute the majority of the weight of the pack to the legs and not the back. The often heavily padded and sometimes semi-rigid shoulder straps are mainly for balancing the weight. They usually (except for those used in ultralight backpacking) have a metal or plastic frame to support and distribute the weight of the pack. Larger packs of this type tend to have a subdivided main compartment. These trekking packs often have several pockets on the outside; they may also have lash points on the exterior (either directly attached to the frame or webbing loops), so that bulky items may be strapped on, although depending on the pack design and type of trek most backpackers will try to stuff everything into the pack. Multiday packs typically have a content between 60 and 100 liters (and are about 3ft /1 meter tall). Smaller packs with similar features are available for shorter trips.
The most common materials for such packs are canvas and nylon, either ripstop fabric for lightweight packs or heavier fabric such as cordura for more typical usage. Most such packs are purpose-designed for the outdoors market; however, it is not uncommon for military surplus packing gear to be sold to outdoorspeople as well for the same purpose. The cheaper versions of the outdoor packs are often favoured by city trekkers; as they have a large volume and still carry relatively easily.
Outdoors packs, in addition to the distinction between external-frame and internal-frame, can be further subdivided based on the duration of trip a pack might be expected to be used on; daypacks hold supplies for a single day's hiking (size about 20-30 litres), while "weekender" bags can hold two to three day's worth of gear and supplies (sizes about 40-50 litres). Larger packs generally have no specific names but are designed to distribute the weight of increased numbers of gear and supplies for longer-duration trips (60-100 litres); such packs often include complex ergonomic support features to simplify the carrying of large amounts of weight. A third type with little or no frame at all, similar to the bookbags used by students and made of light fabric (often nylon ripstop, as mentioned above), is used in ultralight backpacking to eliminate the weight of the frame and heavy fabric used in more typical outdoors packs. Despite (or perhaps because of) their lesser weight, such packs are seldom less expensive than more typical, regular-weight packs.
In addition, outdoors packs are designed for specific purposes such as kayaking/canoeing, rock climbing, mountaineering, cross country skiing, and other such activities. Packs used in competitive strategic sports such as paintball and airsoft are often based on or actually are military gear.
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2008年10月14日星期二
Kilt
The kilt is a knee-length skirt with pleats at the rear, originating in the traditional dress of men and boys in the Scottish Highlands of the 16th century. Since the 19th century it has been associated with the wider culture of Scotland in general, or with Celtic (and more specifically Gaelic) heritage elsewhere. It is most often made of woollen cloth in a tartan pattern.
Though the Scottish kilt is most often worn mainly on formal occasions or at Highland Games and sports events, it has also been adapted as an item of fashionable informal male clothing in recent years.
Forms of the Kilt
The name 'kilt' is applied to a range of garments:
the traditional Scottish garment, either in its historical form, or in the modern adaptation now usual in Scotland (cf. History of the kilt), usually in a tartan pattern
the Irish kilt, based on the Scottish garment but traditionally made in a single (solid) colour [1]
variants of the Scottish kilt adopted in other Celtic nations, such as the Welsh cilt and the Cornish cilt
other skirt-like garments designed for men, but more or less different in structure from the Scottish kilt, including "Contemporary kilts"
certain types of pleated wrapover skirt worn as school uniform by girls.
According to the OED, the noun derives from a verb to kilt, originally meaning "to gird up; to tuck up (the skirts) round the body", itself of Scandinavian origin.
The Scottish kilt
The modern Scottish kilt worn with formal evening wear.
The Scottish kilt displays uniqueness of design, construction, and convention which differentiate it from other garments fitting the general description. It is a tailored garment that is wrapped around the wearer's body at the natural waist (between the lowest rib and the hip) starting from one side (usually the wearer's left), around the front and back and across the front again to the opposite side. The fastenings consist of straps and buckles on both ends, the strap on the inside end usually passing through a slit in the waistband to be buckled on the outside; alternatively it may remain inside the waistband and be buckled inside.
The kilt covers the body from the waist down to just above the knees. The overlapping layers in front are called "aprons" and are flat; the single layer of fabric around the sides and back is pleated. A kilt pin is fastened to the front apron on the free corner (but is not passed through the layer below). Underwear may or may not be worn, as the wearer prefers: in some circumstances underwear is prohibited by military regulations, but is generally required, or at least recommended, for activities such as dancing.
Organizations that sanction and grade the competitions in Highland dancing and bagpiping all have rules governing acceptable attire for the competitors. These rules specify that the kilt is to be worn (except that in the national dances, the female competitors will be wearing the Aboyne dress).
History
Highland soldier in great kilt (1744)
Main article: History of the kilt
The history of the kilt stretches back to at least late 16th century Scotland. However, the nationalism of that tradition is relatively recent. It was only with the Romantic Revival of the early 19th century that the highland kilt was adopted by Lowlanders and the Scottish Diaspora as a symbol of national identity. People from other countries with Celtic connections, some Irish, Cornish, Welsh and Manx, have also adopted tartan kilts in recent times, although to a lesser degree.
The kilt first appeared as the great kilt, a full length garment whose upper half could be worn as a cloak draped over the shoulder, or brought up over head as a cloak. The small kilt or walking kilt (similar to the 'modern' kilt) did not develop until the late 17th or early 18th century, and is essentially the bottom half of the great kilt.
Design and construction
Fabrics
The typical kilt as seen at modern Highland games events is made of twill woven worsted wool. The twill weave used for kilts is a 2-2 type, meaning that each weft thread passes over and under two warp threads at a time. The result is a distinctive diagonal weave pattern in the fabric which is called the twill line. This kind of twill, when woven according to a given color pattern, or sett (see below), is called tartan. In contrast, the Irish kilt traditionally was made from solid color cloth, with saffron or green being the most widely used colours. [1] Kilting fabric weights are given in ounces per yard and run from the very heavy regimental worsted of approximately 18–22 oz. down to a light worsted of about 10–11 oz. The most common weights for kilts are 13 oz. and 16 oz. The heavier weights are more appropriate for cooler weather, while the lighter weights would tend to be selected for warmer weather or for active use, such as Highland dancing. Some patterns are available in only a few weights.
A modern kilt for a typical adult uses about 6–8 yards of single-width (about 26–30 inches) or about 3–4 yards of double-width (about 54–60 inches) tartan fabric. Double width fabric is woven so that the pattern exactly matches on the selvage. The kilt is usually made without a hem because a hem would make the garment too bulky and cause it to hang incorrectly. The exact amount of fabric needed depends upon several factors including the size of the sett, the number of pleats put into the garment, and the size of the person. For a full kilt, 8 yards of fabric would be used regardless of size and the number of pleats and depth of pleat would be adjusted according to their size. For a very large waist, it may be necessary to use 9 yards of cloth.
Setts (tartan patterns)
One of the most distinctive features of the authentic Scots kilt is the tartan pattern, or sett, it exhibits. The association of particular patterns with individual clans and families can be traced back perhaps one or two centuries. It was only in the Victorian era (19th century) that the system of named tartans we know today began to be systematically recorded and formalized, mostly by weaving companies for mercantile purposes. Up until this point, highland tartans held regional associations rather than being identified with any particular clan. Today there are also tartans for districts, counties, societies and corporations. There are also setts for States and Provinces, schools and universities, sporting activities, individuals, and commemorative and simple generic patterns that anybody can wear. See History of the kilt for the process by which these associations came about.
Setts are always arranged horizontally and vertically, never diagonally (except when adapted for ladies' skirts). They are specified by their thread counts, the sequence of colors and their units of width. As an example, the Wallace tartan has a thread count given as "K/4 R32 K32 Y/4" (K is black, R is red, and Y is yellow). This means that 4 units of black thread will be succeeded by 32 units of red, etc., in both the warp and the weft. Typically, the units are the actual number of threads, but as long as the proportions are maintained, the resulting pattern will be the same. This thread count also includes a pivot point indicated by the slash between the colour and thread number. The weaver is supposed to reverse the weaving sequence at the pivot point to create a mirror image of the pattern. This is called a symmetrical tartan. Some tartans, like Buchanan, are asymmetrical, which means they do not have a pivot point. The weaver weaves the sequence all the way through and then starts at the beginning again for the next sett.
Setts are further characterized by their size, the number of inches (or centimetres) in one full repeat. The size of a given sett depends not only on the number of threads in the repeat, but also on the weight of the fabric. This is so because the heavier the fabric the thicker the threads will be, and thus the same number of threads of a heavier weight fabric will occupy more space. The colours given in the thread count are specified as in heraldry, although tartan patterns are not heraldic. The exact shade which is used is a matter of artistic freedom and will vary from one fabric mill to another as well as in dye lot to another within the same mill. Tartans are commercially woven in four standard colour variations that describe the overall tone. "Ancient" or "Old" colours may be characterized by a slightly faded look intended to resemble the vegetable dyes that were once used, although in some cases "Old" simply identifies a tartan that was in use before the current one. Ancient greens and blues are lighter while reds appear orange. "Modern" colours are bright and show off modern aniline dyeing methods. The colours are bright red, dark hunter green, and usually navy blue. "Weathered" or "Reproduction" colours simulate the look of older cloth weathered by the elements. Greens turn to light brown, blues become gray, and reds are a deeper wine colour. The last colour variation is "Muted" which tends toward earth tones. The greens are olive, blues are slate blue, and red is an even deeper wine colour. This means that of the approximately 7,000 registered tartans available there are four possible colour variations for each, resulting in nearly 30,000 tartans.[citation needed]
Setts are registered with the Scottish Tartans Authority which maintains a collection of fabric samples characterized by name and thread count. In all, there are approximately 5000 registered tartans.[citation needed] Although many tartans are added every year, most of the registered patterns available today were created in the 19th century by commercial weavers who had a large variety of colours to work with. The rise of Highland romanticism and the growing Anglicization of Scottish culture by the Victorians at the time led to registering tartans with clan names. Before that, most of these patterns were more connected to geographical regions than to any clan. There is therefore nothing symbolic about the colours, and nothing about the patterns is a reflection of the status of the wearer.
Measurements
Although low quality kilts can be obtained in standard sizes, a quality kilt is tailored to the individual proportions of the wearer. At least three measurements, the waist, hips, and length of the kilt, are usually required. Sometimes the rise (distance above the waist) or the fall (distance from waistline to the widest part of the hips) is also required.
Stitching on the fell of a kilt
A properly made kilt, when buckled on the tightest holes of the straps, should not be so loose that the wearer can easily twist the kilt around the body, nor should it be so tight that it causes "scalloping" of the fabric where it is buckled.
Additionally, the length of the kilt when buckled at the waist should reach a point no lower than halfway across the kneecap nor higher than about an inch above it.
Pleating and stitching
Pleating to the stripe
A kilt can be pleated with either box or knife pleats. A knife pleat is a simple fold, while the box pleat is bulkier, consisting of two knife pleats back-to-back. Knife pleats are the most common in modern civilian kilts. Regimental traditions vary. The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders use box pleats, while the Black Watch make their kilts of the same tartan with knife pleats. These traditions were also passed on to affiliated regiments in the Commonwealth, and were retained in successor battalions to these regiments in the amalgamated Royal Regiment of Scotland.
Pleats can be arranged relative to the pattern in two ways. In pleating to the stripe, a vertical stripe is selected and the fabric is folded so that this stripe runs down the center of each pleat. The result is that along the back and sides of the kilt horizontal bands appear which look different from the front than from the back. This is often called military pleating because it is the style adopted by many military regiments. It is also widely used by pipe bands.
Pleating to the sett
In pleating to the sett the fabric is folded so that the pattern of the sett is repeated all around the kilt (especially in the waistband). This is done by taking up one full sett in each pleat, or two full setts if they are small. This causes the kilt to look much the same from both front and back.
Any pleat is characterized by depth and width. The portion of the pleat that protrudes under the overlying pleat is the size or width. The pleat width is selected based on the size of the sett and the amount of fabric to be used in constructing the kilt, and will generally vary from about 1/2" to about 3/4".
The depth is the part of the pleat which is folded under the overlying pleat. It depends solely on the size of the tartan sett even when pleating to the stripe, since the sett determines the spacing of the stripes.
The number of pleats used in making the kilt depends upon how much material is to be used in constructing the garment and upon the size of the sett.
The pleats across the fell are tapered slightly since the wearer's waist will be narrower than his hips and the pleats are usually stitched down either by machine or by hand.
Highland dancer. Note that the action of the kilt is dependent on the way the kilt is constructed, albeit it is an Aboyne dress depicted here.
In Highland dancing, it is easy to see the effect of the stitching on the action of the kilt. The kilt hugs the dancer's body from the waist down to the hipline and, from there, in response to the dancer's movements, it breaks sharply out. The way the kilt moves in response to the dance steps is an important part of the dance. If the pleats were not stitched down in this portion of the kilt, the action, or movement, would be quite different.
Kilt care
As the kilt is made of wool, it should not simply be cleaned in a washing machine along with other laundry. Although the cloth is pre-shrunk, a washing machine would spoil the pleats and the kilt would need to be pressed. Instead, there are two main methods by which a kilt can be laundered: dry cleaning and hand laundering in cold or lukewarm water.
Expert recommendations differ on the better of these two methods. Tewksbury and Stuehmeyer, in The Art of Kiltmaking, advise strongly against having the garment dry cleaned, stating that "dry cleaning leaves a subtle residue on the kilt" and, as a result, it "will soil more easily after it has been dry-cleaned", but Matthew Newsome, Curator of the Scottish Tartans Museum in North Carolina (USA), states that "it is best to dry clean" the kilt, feeling that the kilt does not come into direct contact with the skin for very long and thus will not readily soil.
In between wearings, the kilt should first be aired out and then hung in a closet. One way to hang the kilt is to use a skirt hanger with large clasps. The kilt is first folded twice in half along the waist line. Then the skirt hanger is used to clasp the top of the kilt before it is hung in the closet. If moths are a problem, it can be hung with a cedar cache or strips of cedar wood.
Occasionally, the pleats may need to be re-pressed and this requires care. The authors of The Art of Kiltmaking advise that the pleats should be basted down before pressing so as to keep the pleats as straight as possible from the bottom of the fell to the bottom of the kilt, thus preserving the look of the sett when the kilt is worn.
Kilt accessories
The Scottish kilt is usually worn with kilt hose (woollen socks), turned down at the knee, often with garter flashes, and a sporran (Gaelic for "purse": a type of pouch), which hangs around the waist from a chain or leather strap. This may be plain or embossed leather, or decorated with sealskin, fur, or polished metal plating.
Other common accessories, depending on the formality of the context, include
belt (usually with embossed buckle)
jacket (of various traditional designs)
sgian dubh (Gaelic: "black knife": a small sheathed knife worn in the top of the right hose)
Ghillie brogues
Styles of kilt wear
Kilt worn with the Argyll jacket, and belt.
Today most Scotsmen regard the kilt as formal dress or ceremonial national dress. Although there are still a few people who wear the kilt daily, it is generally owned or hired to be worn at weddings or other formal occasions, much the same way as top hat and tails are in England or tuxedos in America, and may be worn by anyone regardless of nationality or descent. For formal wear, the kilt is usually worn with a Prince Charlie or an Argyll jacket. (Commercial suppliers have now produced equivalent jackets with Irish and Welsh themed styling.)
The kilt is also used for parades by groups such as the Scouts, and in many places the kilt is seen in force at Highland games and pipe band championships as well as being worn at Scottish country dances and ceilidhs.
Certain regiments/units of the British Army and armies of other Commonwealth nations (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa) still continue to wear the kilt as part of dress or duty uniform, though they have not been used in combat since 1940. Uniforms in which the kilt is worn include Ceremonial Dress, Service Dress, and Barracks Dress. The kilt is considered appropriate for ceremonial parades, office duties, less formal parades, walking out, mess dinners, and classroom instruction/band practice. Ceremonial kilts have also been developed for the U.S. Marine Corps, and the pipe and drum bands of the U.S. Coast Guard and the U.S. Air Force.
In recent years, the kilt has also become increasingly common in Scotland and around the world for casual wear, for example with the Jacobite shirt. It is not uncommon to see the kilt worn at Irish pubs in the US, and it is becoming somewhat less rare to see them in the workplace.[4] Casual use of the kilt dressed down with lace-up boots or moccasins, and with tee shirts or golf shirts, is becoming increasingly more familiar at Highland Games. The kilt is associated with a sense of Scottish national pride and will often be seen being worn, along with a football top, when members of the Tartan Army are watching a football or rugby match. The small ornamental Sgian Dubh dagger is often omitted where security concerns are paramount (for example, they are not allowed on commercial aircraft). For the same reasons, the traditional Sgian Dubh is sometimes substituted by a wooden or plastic alternative, as its use is now largely ornamental (with only the hilt showing over the top of the hose).
The Irish kilt
An Irish pipe band wearing kilts
Starting with Dál Riata, the Scots and the Irish have been closely entwined peoples.
Though the origins of the Irish kilt continue to be a subject of debate, current evidence suggests that the kilt itself originated in the Scottish Highlands and Isles and was adopted by Irish nationalists at the turn of the 20th century as a symbol of Celtic identity. [5]
A garment that has often been mistaken for the kilt in early depictions is the Irish 'Lein-croich', a long tunic traditionally made from solid colour cloth, with black, saffron and green being the most widely used colours. Solid colored Irish kilts were first adopted for use by the Irish Regiments serving in the British Army, but they could often be seen in late 19th and early 20th century photos in Ireland especially at political and musical gatherings, as the kilt was adopted as a symbol of Gaelic nationalism in Ireland during this period. [6] Tweed kilts were also not uncommon in both Scotland and Ireland and have been popular with sportsmen, fishermen, and hunters.
Many "Irish County" tartans were designed by Polly Wittering, first produced in 1996 by the House of Edgar, of Perth in Scotland. Marton Mills in West Yorkshire produced a competing "Irish County Crest Collection" based on the colours from Irish county crests, resulting in tartans that are considered aesthetically questionable by many traditionalists. There are also a number of "Irish District" tartans most of which are recent designs by Lochcarron of Scotland. The Ulster tartan is one of the oldest registered Irish tartans. It was found by a farmer, W.G. Dixon, in County Londonderry in 1956 as he uncovered pieces of clothing made from the design. The Belfast Museum and Art Gallery dated the material from between the 1590s to 1650s. Its exact origins are unknown, but it is likely that came from a Scottish pioneer during the beginning of the Ulster plantation period when the Scots first came in great numbers to Ulster. There are other generic Irish tartans including the Irish National, St. Patrick's, Tara, and Clodagh. Some Irish family tartans have been appearing over the years, although these are few at the moment more are being created. O'Brien, Sullivan, Murphy, Fitzpatrick, and Forde are fairly common examples of Irish family tartans.
In present day Ireland the kilt is still seen very much as being primarily Scottish, and the current crop of county and district tartans is largely unknown in Ireland and indeed difficult to obtain, having been designed and marketed primarily for the Irish-American market. As they have been neither designed nor manufactured in Ireland itself it is questionable whether they can be strictly described as Irish. In the book District Tartans by Gordon Teall of Teallach and Philip D Smith Jr (ISBN 0 85683 085 2) only three tartans are identified as being distinctly Irish; these are Ulster, Tara, and Clodagh. As noted above the Ulster tartan originates from around 1590–1650 and is probably Scottish in origin.[7] The Tara was first noted around 1880 and was originally called Murphy. The Clodagh has an earliest date of 1971 with uncertainty as to its original designer or first appearance.
Day-to-day kilt wearing is rarely if ever encountered. Within the world of Irish dancing the boy's kilt has been largely abandoned, especially since the worldwide popularity of Riverdance and the revival and interest in Irish dancing generally. There are exceptions to these trends in Ireland. A vibrant piping scene in Ireland means that there are many kilted bands throughout the whole of Ireland, particularly in the north of the island[citation needed]. The majority of these bands wear tartan kilts, the solid colour saffron kilt being almost exclusively the preserve of the pipe bands of the Republic's Defence Forces and the British Army's Irish regiments[citation needed].
The kilt in other Celtic nations
Although not a traditional component of national dress outside Scotland, the kilt has become recently popular in the other Celtic nations as a sign of Celtic identity.[8] Kilts and tartans can therefore also be seen in Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, Brittany, the Tras-os-Montes region in the North of Portugal, and Galicia in Spain, as well as parts of England, particularly the North East. Nowadays with Welsh nationalism on the rise and a resurgence of Welsh national pride, the kilt (Welsh: Cilt)[citation needed]. Although they are generally seen these days in formal settings like weddings, there has been an increase in the number of people wearing their kilt to a rugby or football match, paired with a jersey rather than a formal jacket[citation needed].
The St David's Tartan or brithwe Dewi Sant is one of the most popular tartans in Wales, but individual family tartans are being produced, despite there being no evidence that the Welsh (or any other Celtic nation for that matter) traditionally used tartan to identify families. Williams, Jones, Thomas, Evans, and Davies are among the most popular tartans and common names in Wales. The Welsh National tartan was designed by D.M. Richards in 1967 to demonstrate Wales' connection with the greater Celtic world. Its colours (green, red, and white) are the colours of the Welsh national flag.
There are currently 12 Breton tartans of which Brittany National (National Breton), Brittany Walking, Lead it Of and 9 tartans for the traditional countries which compose Brittany: Kerne, Leon, Tregor, Gwened, Dol, St Malo, Rennes, Nantes, St Brieuc. All Breton tartans are officially recorded in Scotland.[9]
Ancient Egyptian Kilt
The Shendyt is often called a kilt. The Shendyt was worn by Pharaohs and warriors in Ancient Egypt. It is a piece of pleated linen wrapped around the body at the waist.
Contemporary kilt
Example of contemporary kilt by AlphaKilts
Contemporary kilts (also known as modern kilts) have appeared in the clothing marketplace in Scotland [10], the USA and Canada in a range of fabrics, including leather, denim, corduroy, and cotton. [11] They may be designed for formal or casual dress, for use in sports or outdoor recreation, or as white or blue collar workwear. Some are closely modelled on traditional Scottish kilts, but others are similar only in being knee-length skirts for men. They may have box pleats, symmetrical knife pleats, or no pleats at all, and be fastened by studs or velcro instead of buckles. Many are designed to be worn without a sporran, and may have pockets or tool belts attached.
Kilts are sometimes referred to by enthusiasts for their daily use as Male Un-bifurcated Garments or "Mugs", though strictly this term also covers other garments such as sarongs which are regarded as viable alternatives to trousers (bifurcated garments). In 2008, a USPS letter carrier, Dean Peterson, made formal proposal that the kilt, as a Male Unbifurcated Garment, be approved as an acceptable postal uniform — for reasons of comfort. The proposal was defeated at the convention of the 220,000-member National Letter Carriers' Association.
NOTE:
Though the Scottish kilt is most often worn mainly on formal occasions or at Highland Games and sports events, it has also been adapted as an item of fashionable informal male clothing in recent years.
Forms of the Kilt
The name 'kilt' is applied to a range of garments:
the traditional Scottish garment, either in its historical form, or in the modern adaptation now usual in Scotland (cf. History of the kilt), usually in a tartan pattern
the Irish kilt, based on the Scottish garment but traditionally made in a single (solid) colour [1]
variants of the Scottish kilt adopted in other Celtic nations, such as the Welsh cilt and the Cornish cilt
other skirt-like garments designed for men, but more or less different in structure from the Scottish kilt, including "Contemporary kilts"
certain types of pleated wrapover skirt worn as school uniform by girls.
According to the OED, the noun derives from a verb to kilt, originally meaning "to gird up; to tuck up (the skirts) round the body", itself of Scandinavian origin.
The Scottish kilt
The modern Scottish kilt worn with formal evening wear.
The Scottish kilt displays uniqueness of design, construction, and convention which differentiate it from other garments fitting the general description. It is a tailored garment that is wrapped around the wearer's body at the natural waist (between the lowest rib and the hip) starting from one side (usually the wearer's left), around the front and back and across the front again to the opposite side. The fastenings consist of straps and buckles on both ends, the strap on the inside end usually passing through a slit in the waistband to be buckled on the outside; alternatively it may remain inside the waistband and be buckled inside.
The kilt covers the body from the waist down to just above the knees. The overlapping layers in front are called "aprons" and are flat; the single layer of fabric around the sides and back is pleated. A kilt pin is fastened to the front apron on the free corner (but is not passed through the layer below). Underwear may or may not be worn, as the wearer prefers: in some circumstances underwear is prohibited by military regulations, but is generally required, or at least recommended, for activities such as dancing.
Organizations that sanction and grade the competitions in Highland dancing and bagpiping all have rules governing acceptable attire for the competitors. These rules specify that the kilt is to be worn (except that in the national dances, the female competitors will be wearing the Aboyne dress).
History
Highland soldier in great kilt (1744)
Main article: History of the kilt
The history of the kilt stretches back to at least late 16th century Scotland. However, the nationalism of that tradition is relatively recent. It was only with the Romantic Revival of the early 19th century that the highland kilt was adopted by Lowlanders and the Scottish Diaspora as a symbol of national identity. People from other countries with Celtic connections, some Irish, Cornish, Welsh and Manx, have also adopted tartan kilts in recent times, although to a lesser degree.
The kilt first appeared as the great kilt, a full length garment whose upper half could be worn as a cloak draped over the shoulder, or brought up over head as a cloak. The small kilt or walking kilt (similar to the 'modern' kilt) did not develop until the late 17th or early 18th century, and is essentially the bottom half of the great kilt.
Design and construction
Fabrics
The typical kilt as seen at modern Highland games events is made of twill woven worsted wool. The twill weave used for kilts is a 2-2 type, meaning that each weft thread passes over and under two warp threads at a time. The result is a distinctive diagonal weave pattern in the fabric which is called the twill line. This kind of twill, when woven according to a given color pattern, or sett (see below), is called tartan. In contrast, the Irish kilt traditionally was made from solid color cloth, with saffron or green being the most widely used colours. [1] Kilting fabric weights are given in ounces per yard and run from the very heavy regimental worsted of approximately 18–22 oz. down to a light worsted of about 10–11 oz. The most common weights for kilts are 13 oz. and 16 oz. The heavier weights are more appropriate for cooler weather, while the lighter weights would tend to be selected for warmer weather or for active use, such as Highland dancing. Some patterns are available in only a few weights.
A modern kilt for a typical adult uses about 6–8 yards of single-width (about 26–30 inches) or about 3–4 yards of double-width (about 54–60 inches) tartan fabric. Double width fabric is woven so that the pattern exactly matches on the selvage. The kilt is usually made without a hem because a hem would make the garment too bulky and cause it to hang incorrectly. The exact amount of fabric needed depends upon several factors including the size of the sett, the number of pleats put into the garment, and the size of the person. For a full kilt, 8 yards of fabric would be used regardless of size and the number of pleats and depth of pleat would be adjusted according to their size. For a very large waist, it may be necessary to use 9 yards of cloth.
Setts (tartan patterns)
One of the most distinctive features of the authentic Scots kilt is the tartan pattern, or sett, it exhibits. The association of particular patterns with individual clans and families can be traced back perhaps one or two centuries. It was only in the Victorian era (19th century) that the system of named tartans we know today began to be systematically recorded and formalized, mostly by weaving companies for mercantile purposes. Up until this point, highland tartans held regional associations rather than being identified with any particular clan. Today there are also tartans for districts, counties, societies and corporations. There are also setts for States and Provinces, schools and universities, sporting activities, individuals, and commemorative and simple generic patterns that anybody can wear. See History of the kilt for the process by which these associations came about.
Setts are always arranged horizontally and vertically, never diagonally (except when adapted for ladies' skirts). They are specified by their thread counts, the sequence of colors and their units of width. As an example, the Wallace tartan has a thread count given as "K/4 R32 K32 Y/4" (K is black, R is red, and Y is yellow). This means that 4 units of black thread will be succeeded by 32 units of red, etc., in both the warp and the weft. Typically, the units are the actual number of threads, but as long as the proportions are maintained, the resulting pattern will be the same. This thread count also includes a pivot point indicated by the slash between the colour and thread number. The weaver is supposed to reverse the weaving sequence at the pivot point to create a mirror image of the pattern. This is called a symmetrical tartan. Some tartans, like Buchanan, are asymmetrical, which means they do not have a pivot point. The weaver weaves the sequence all the way through and then starts at the beginning again for the next sett.
Setts are further characterized by their size, the number of inches (or centimetres) in one full repeat. The size of a given sett depends not only on the number of threads in the repeat, but also on the weight of the fabric. This is so because the heavier the fabric the thicker the threads will be, and thus the same number of threads of a heavier weight fabric will occupy more space. The colours given in the thread count are specified as in heraldry, although tartan patterns are not heraldic. The exact shade which is used is a matter of artistic freedom and will vary from one fabric mill to another as well as in dye lot to another within the same mill. Tartans are commercially woven in four standard colour variations that describe the overall tone. "Ancient" or "Old" colours may be characterized by a slightly faded look intended to resemble the vegetable dyes that were once used, although in some cases "Old" simply identifies a tartan that was in use before the current one. Ancient greens and blues are lighter while reds appear orange. "Modern" colours are bright and show off modern aniline dyeing methods. The colours are bright red, dark hunter green, and usually navy blue. "Weathered" or "Reproduction" colours simulate the look of older cloth weathered by the elements. Greens turn to light brown, blues become gray, and reds are a deeper wine colour. The last colour variation is "Muted" which tends toward earth tones. The greens are olive, blues are slate blue, and red is an even deeper wine colour. This means that of the approximately 7,000 registered tartans available there are four possible colour variations for each, resulting in nearly 30,000 tartans.[citation needed]
Setts are registered with the Scottish Tartans Authority which maintains a collection of fabric samples characterized by name and thread count. In all, there are approximately 5000 registered tartans.[citation needed] Although many tartans are added every year, most of the registered patterns available today were created in the 19th century by commercial weavers who had a large variety of colours to work with. The rise of Highland romanticism and the growing Anglicization of Scottish culture by the Victorians at the time led to registering tartans with clan names. Before that, most of these patterns were more connected to geographical regions than to any clan. There is therefore nothing symbolic about the colours, and nothing about the patterns is a reflection of the status of the wearer.
Measurements
Although low quality kilts can be obtained in standard sizes, a quality kilt is tailored to the individual proportions of the wearer. At least three measurements, the waist, hips, and length of the kilt, are usually required. Sometimes the rise (distance above the waist) or the fall (distance from waistline to the widest part of the hips) is also required.
Stitching on the fell of a kilt
A properly made kilt, when buckled on the tightest holes of the straps, should not be so loose that the wearer can easily twist the kilt around the body, nor should it be so tight that it causes "scalloping" of the fabric where it is buckled.
Additionally, the length of the kilt when buckled at the waist should reach a point no lower than halfway across the kneecap nor higher than about an inch above it.
Pleating and stitching
Pleating to the stripe
A kilt can be pleated with either box or knife pleats. A knife pleat is a simple fold, while the box pleat is bulkier, consisting of two knife pleats back-to-back. Knife pleats are the most common in modern civilian kilts. Regimental traditions vary. The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders use box pleats, while the Black Watch make their kilts of the same tartan with knife pleats. These traditions were also passed on to affiliated regiments in the Commonwealth, and were retained in successor battalions to these regiments in the amalgamated Royal Regiment of Scotland.
Pleats can be arranged relative to the pattern in two ways. In pleating to the stripe, a vertical stripe is selected and the fabric is folded so that this stripe runs down the center of each pleat. The result is that along the back and sides of the kilt horizontal bands appear which look different from the front than from the back. This is often called military pleating because it is the style adopted by many military regiments. It is also widely used by pipe bands.
Pleating to the sett
In pleating to the sett the fabric is folded so that the pattern of the sett is repeated all around the kilt (especially in the waistband). This is done by taking up one full sett in each pleat, or two full setts if they are small. This causes the kilt to look much the same from both front and back.
Any pleat is characterized by depth and width. The portion of the pleat that protrudes under the overlying pleat is the size or width. The pleat width is selected based on the size of the sett and the amount of fabric to be used in constructing the kilt, and will generally vary from about 1/2" to about 3/4".
The depth is the part of the pleat which is folded under the overlying pleat. It depends solely on the size of the tartan sett even when pleating to the stripe, since the sett determines the spacing of the stripes.
The number of pleats used in making the kilt depends upon how much material is to be used in constructing the garment and upon the size of the sett.
The pleats across the fell are tapered slightly since the wearer's waist will be narrower than his hips and the pleats are usually stitched down either by machine or by hand.
Highland dancer. Note that the action of the kilt is dependent on the way the kilt is constructed, albeit it is an Aboyne dress depicted here.
In Highland dancing, it is easy to see the effect of the stitching on the action of the kilt. The kilt hugs the dancer's body from the waist down to the hipline and, from there, in response to the dancer's movements, it breaks sharply out. The way the kilt moves in response to the dance steps is an important part of the dance. If the pleats were not stitched down in this portion of the kilt, the action, or movement, would be quite different.
Kilt care
As the kilt is made of wool, it should not simply be cleaned in a washing machine along with other laundry. Although the cloth is pre-shrunk, a washing machine would spoil the pleats and the kilt would need to be pressed. Instead, there are two main methods by which a kilt can be laundered: dry cleaning and hand laundering in cold or lukewarm water.
Expert recommendations differ on the better of these two methods. Tewksbury and Stuehmeyer, in The Art of Kiltmaking, advise strongly against having the garment dry cleaned, stating that "dry cleaning leaves a subtle residue on the kilt" and, as a result, it "will soil more easily after it has been dry-cleaned", but Matthew Newsome, Curator of the Scottish Tartans Museum in North Carolina (USA), states that "it is best to dry clean" the kilt, feeling that the kilt does not come into direct contact with the skin for very long and thus will not readily soil.
In between wearings, the kilt should first be aired out and then hung in a closet. One way to hang the kilt is to use a skirt hanger with large clasps. The kilt is first folded twice in half along the waist line. Then the skirt hanger is used to clasp the top of the kilt before it is hung in the closet. If moths are a problem, it can be hung with a cedar cache or strips of cedar wood.
Occasionally, the pleats may need to be re-pressed and this requires care. The authors of The Art of Kiltmaking advise that the pleats should be basted down before pressing so as to keep the pleats as straight as possible from the bottom of the fell to the bottom of the kilt, thus preserving the look of the sett when the kilt is worn.
Kilt accessories
The Scottish kilt is usually worn with kilt hose (woollen socks), turned down at the knee, often with garter flashes, and a sporran (Gaelic for "purse": a type of pouch), which hangs around the waist from a chain or leather strap. This may be plain or embossed leather, or decorated with sealskin, fur, or polished metal plating.
Other common accessories, depending on the formality of the context, include
belt (usually with embossed buckle)
jacket (of various traditional designs)
sgian dubh (Gaelic: "black knife": a small sheathed knife worn in the top of the right hose)
Ghillie brogues
Styles of kilt wear
Kilt worn with the Argyll jacket, and belt.
Today most Scotsmen regard the kilt as formal dress or ceremonial national dress. Although there are still a few people who wear the kilt daily, it is generally owned or hired to be worn at weddings or other formal occasions, much the same way as top hat and tails are in England or tuxedos in America, and may be worn by anyone regardless of nationality or descent. For formal wear, the kilt is usually worn with a Prince Charlie or an Argyll jacket. (Commercial suppliers have now produced equivalent jackets with Irish and Welsh themed styling.)
The kilt is also used for parades by groups such as the Scouts, and in many places the kilt is seen in force at Highland games and pipe band championships as well as being worn at Scottish country dances and ceilidhs.
Certain regiments/units of the British Army and armies of other Commonwealth nations (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa) still continue to wear the kilt as part of dress or duty uniform, though they have not been used in combat since 1940. Uniforms in which the kilt is worn include Ceremonial Dress, Service Dress, and Barracks Dress. The kilt is considered appropriate for ceremonial parades, office duties, less formal parades, walking out, mess dinners, and classroom instruction/band practice. Ceremonial kilts have also been developed for the U.S. Marine Corps, and the pipe and drum bands of the U.S. Coast Guard and the U.S. Air Force.
In recent years, the kilt has also become increasingly common in Scotland and around the world for casual wear, for example with the Jacobite shirt. It is not uncommon to see the kilt worn at Irish pubs in the US, and it is becoming somewhat less rare to see them in the workplace.[4] Casual use of the kilt dressed down with lace-up boots or moccasins, and with tee shirts or golf shirts, is becoming increasingly more familiar at Highland Games. The kilt is associated with a sense of Scottish national pride and will often be seen being worn, along with a football top, when members of the Tartan Army are watching a football or rugby match. The small ornamental Sgian Dubh dagger is often omitted where security concerns are paramount (for example, they are not allowed on commercial aircraft). For the same reasons, the traditional Sgian Dubh is sometimes substituted by a wooden or plastic alternative, as its use is now largely ornamental (with only the hilt showing over the top of the hose).
The Irish kilt
An Irish pipe band wearing kilts
Starting with Dál Riata, the Scots and the Irish have been closely entwined peoples.
Though the origins of the Irish kilt continue to be a subject of debate, current evidence suggests that the kilt itself originated in the Scottish Highlands and Isles and was adopted by Irish nationalists at the turn of the 20th century as a symbol of Celtic identity. [5]
A garment that has often been mistaken for the kilt in early depictions is the Irish 'Lein-croich', a long tunic traditionally made from solid colour cloth, with black, saffron and green being the most widely used colours. Solid colored Irish kilts were first adopted for use by the Irish Regiments serving in the British Army, but they could often be seen in late 19th and early 20th century photos in Ireland especially at political and musical gatherings, as the kilt was adopted as a symbol of Gaelic nationalism in Ireland during this period. [6] Tweed kilts were also not uncommon in both Scotland and Ireland and have been popular with sportsmen, fishermen, and hunters.
Many "Irish County" tartans were designed by Polly Wittering, first produced in 1996 by the House of Edgar, of Perth in Scotland. Marton Mills in West Yorkshire produced a competing "Irish County Crest Collection" based on the colours from Irish county crests, resulting in tartans that are considered aesthetically questionable by many traditionalists. There are also a number of "Irish District" tartans most of which are recent designs by Lochcarron of Scotland. The Ulster tartan is one of the oldest registered Irish tartans. It was found by a farmer, W.G. Dixon, in County Londonderry in 1956 as he uncovered pieces of clothing made from the design. The Belfast Museum and Art Gallery dated the material from between the 1590s to 1650s. Its exact origins are unknown, but it is likely that came from a Scottish pioneer during the beginning of the Ulster plantation period when the Scots first came in great numbers to Ulster. There are other generic Irish tartans including the Irish National, St. Patrick's, Tara, and Clodagh. Some Irish family tartans have been appearing over the years, although these are few at the moment more are being created. O'Brien, Sullivan, Murphy, Fitzpatrick, and Forde are fairly common examples of Irish family tartans.
In present day Ireland the kilt is still seen very much as being primarily Scottish, and the current crop of county and district tartans is largely unknown in Ireland and indeed difficult to obtain, having been designed and marketed primarily for the Irish-American market. As they have been neither designed nor manufactured in Ireland itself it is questionable whether they can be strictly described as Irish. In the book District Tartans by Gordon Teall of Teallach and Philip D Smith Jr (ISBN 0 85683 085 2) only three tartans are identified as being distinctly Irish; these are Ulster, Tara, and Clodagh. As noted above the Ulster tartan originates from around 1590–1650 and is probably Scottish in origin.[7] The Tara was first noted around 1880 and was originally called Murphy. The Clodagh has an earliest date of 1971 with uncertainty as to its original designer or first appearance.
Day-to-day kilt wearing is rarely if ever encountered. Within the world of Irish dancing the boy's kilt has been largely abandoned, especially since the worldwide popularity of Riverdance and the revival and interest in Irish dancing generally. There are exceptions to these trends in Ireland. A vibrant piping scene in Ireland means that there are many kilted bands throughout the whole of Ireland, particularly in the north of the island[citation needed]. The majority of these bands wear tartan kilts, the solid colour saffron kilt being almost exclusively the preserve of the pipe bands of the Republic's Defence Forces and the British Army's Irish regiments[citation needed].
The kilt in other Celtic nations
Although not a traditional component of national dress outside Scotland, the kilt has become recently popular in the other Celtic nations as a sign of Celtic identity.[8] Kilts and tartans can therefore also be seen in Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, Brittany, the Tras-os-Montes region in the North of Portugal, and Galicia in Spain, as well as parts of England, particularly the North East. Nowadays with Welsh nationalism on the rise and a resurgence of Welsh national pride, the kilt (Welsh: Cilt)[citation needed]. Although they are generally seen these days in formal settings like weddings, there has been an increase in the number of people wearing their kilt to a rugby or football match, paired with a jersey rather than a formal jacket[citation needed].
The St David's Tartan or brithwe Dewi Sant is one of the most popular tartans in Wales, but individual family tartans are being produced, despite there being no evidence that the Welsh (or any other Celtic nation for that matter) traditionally used tartan to identify families. Williams, Jones, Thomas, Evans, and Davies are among the most popular tartans and common names in Wales. The Welsh National tartan was designed by D.M. Richards in 1967 to demonstrate Wales' connection with the greater Celtic world. Its colours (green, red, and white) are the colours of the Welsh national flag.
There are currently 12 Breton tartans of which Brittany National (National Breton), Brittany Walking, Lead it Of and 9 tartans for the traditional countries which compose Brittany: Kerne, Leon, Tregor, Gwened, Dol, St Malo, Rennes, Nantes, St Brieuc. All Breton tartans are officially recorded in Scotland.[9]
Ancient Egyptian Kilt
The Shendyt is often called a kilt. The Shendyt was worn by Pharaohs and warriors in Ancient Egypt. It is a piece of pleated linen wrapped around the body at the waist.
Contemporary kilt
Example of contemporary kilt by AlphaKilts
Contemporary kilts (also known as modern kilts) have appeared in the clothing marketplace in Scotland [10], the USA and Canada in a range of fabrics, including leather, denim, corduroy, and cotton. [11] They may be designed for formal or casual dress, for use in sports or outdoor recreation, or as white or blue collar workwear. Some are closely modelled on traditional Scottish kilts, but others are similar only in being knee-length skirts for men. They may have box pleats, symmetrical knife pleats, or no pleats at all, and be fastened by studs or velcro instead of buckles. Many are designed to be worn without a sporran, and may have pockets or tool belts attached.
Kilts are sometimes referred to by enthusiasts for their daily use as Male Un-bifurcated Garments or "Mugs", though strictly this term also covers other garments such as sarongs which are regarded as viable alternatives to trousers (bifurcated garments). In 2008, a USPS letter carrier, Dean Peterson, made formal proposal that the kilt, as a Male Unbifurcated Garment, be approved as an acceptable postal uniform — for reasons of comfort. The proposal was defeated at the convention of the 220,000-member National Letter Carriers' Association.
NOTE:
2008年10月13日星期一
Cape
A cape is a type of clothing, and can be used to describe any sleeveless outer garment, such as a poncho, but usually it is a long garment that covers only the back half of the wearer, fastening about the neck. They were common in medieval Europe, especially when combined with a hood in the chaperon, and have had periodic returns to fashion, for example in nineteenth century Europe. Roman Catholic clergy wear a type of cape known as a ferraiolo, which is worn for formal events outside of a liturgical context. The cope is a liturgical vestment in the form of a cape. Copes are often highly decorated with elaborate embroidery.
Capes remain in regular use as rain wear in various military units and police forces, for example in France and the United Kingdom. A gas cape was a voluminous military garment designed to give rain protection to someone wearing the bulky gas masks used in twentieth century wars. In modern times, comic superheros such as Superman and Batman are often depicted wearing capes.
In fashionwear, the word cape usually refers to a shorter garment and cloak to a full-length version of the different types of garment, and although the two are sometimes used synonymously for full-length coverings, the shortest versions are never referred to as cloaks. The fashion cape does not cover the front to any appreciable degree. In rainwear, a cape is usually a long and roomy protective garment worn to keep one dry in the rain.
Evening capes
In full evening dress, ladies frequently use the cape as a fashion statement, or to protect the wearer or the fine fabrics of eveningwear from the elements, especially where a coat would crush—or hide—the garment. These capes may be short (over the shoulders or to the waist) or a full-length cloak. Short capes were usually made of or trimmed in fur; today fur is less acceptable as a fashion accessory but the fabric of an evening cape must be expensive, with an opulent lining and trim. Typical fabrics used are velvet, silk and satin. Capes are still authorized as an alternative to the more utilitarian trenchcoat for U.S. Army officers in mess dress.
NOTE:
Haute couture
Haute couture refers to the creation of exclusive custom-fitted fashions. It originally referred to Englishman Charles Frederick Worth's work, produced in Paris in the mid-nineteenth century. In modern France, haute couture is a "protected name" that can be used only by firms that meet certain well-defined standards. However, the term is also used loosely to describe all high-fashion custom-fitted clothing, whether it is produced in Paris or in other fashion capitals such as Milan, London, Rome, New York and Tokyo. Haute couture is made to order for a specific customer, and it is usually made from high-quality, expensive fabric and sewn with extreme attention to detail and finish, often using time-consuming, hand-executed techniques.
The term can refer to:
the fashion houses or fashion designers that create exclusive and often trend-setting fashions
the fashions created
Legal status
In France, the term haute couture is protected by law and is defined by the Chambre de commerce et d'industrie de Paris based in Paris, France. Their rules state that only "those companies mentioned on the list drawn up each year by a commission domiciled at the Ministry for Industry are entitled to avail themselves" of the label haute couture. The criteria for haute couture were established in 1945 and updated in 1992.
To earn the right to call itself a couture house and to use the term haute couture in its advertising and any other way, members of the Chambre syndicale de la haute couture must follow these rules:
Design made-to-order for private clients, with one or more fittings.
Have a workshop (atelier) in Paris that employs at least fifteen people full-time.
Each season (i.e., twice a year), present a collection to the Paris press, comprising at least thirty-five runs with outfits for both daytime wear and evening wear.
However, the term haute couture may have been misused by ready-to-wear brands since the late 1980s, so that its true meaning may have become blurred with that of prêt-à-porter (the French term for ready-to-wear fashion) in the public perception. Every haute couture house also markets prêt-à-porter collections, which typically deliver a higher return on investment than their custom clothing[citation needed]. In fact, much of the haute couture displayed at fashion shows today is rarely sold; it is created to enhance the prestige of the house[citation needed]. Falling revenues have forced a few couture houses to abandon their less profitable couture division and concentrate solely on the less prestigious prêt-à-porter. These houses, such as Italian designer Antonio Capucci, all of whom have their workshops in Italy, are no longer considered haute couture.
Many top designer fashion houses, such as Chanel, use the word for some of their special collections. These collections are often not for sale or they are very difficult to purchase. Sometimes, "haute couture" doesn't mean just creation of new models of cloth wear, but it's also a type of fine art, like any other ones, as sculpture, painting, music and more. Moreover, "haute couture" can even include all of the mentioned components.
History
French leadership in European fashion may perhaps be dated from the 18th century, when the art, architecture, music, and fashions of the French court at Versailles were imitated across Europe[citation needed]. Visitors to Paris brought back clothing that was then copied by local dressmakers. Stylish women also ordered fashion dolls dressed in the latest Parisian fashion to serve as models.
As railroads and steamships made European travel easier, it was increasingly common for wealthy women to travel to Paris to shop for clothing and accessories. French fitters and dressmakers were commonly thought to be the best in Europe, and real Parisian garments were considered better than local imitations.
The couturier Charles Frederick Worth (October 13, 1826–March 10, 1895), is widely considered the father of haute couture as it is known today. Although born in Bourne, Lincolnshire, England, Worth made his mark in the French fashion industry. While he created one-of-a-kind designs to please some of his titled or wealthy customers, he is best known for preparing a portfolio of designs that were shown on live models at the House of Worth. Clients selected one model, specified colors and fabrics, and had a duplicate garment tailor-made in Worth's workshop. Worth combined individual tailoring with a standardization more characteristic of the ready-to-wear clothing industry, which was also developing during this period.
Following in Worth's footsteps were Callot Soeurs, Patou, Poiret, Vionnet, Fortuny, Lanvin, Chanel, Mainbocher, Schiaparelli, Balenciaga, and Dior. Some of these fashion houses still exist today, under the leadership of modern designers.
In the 1960s a group of young designers who had trained under men like Dior and Balenciaga left these established couture houses and opened their own establishments. The most successful of these young designers were Yves Saint Laurent, Pierre Cardin, André Courrèges, and Emanuel Ungaro. Japanese native and Paris-based Hanae Mori, a woman, was also successful in establishing her own line.
Lacroix is perhaps the most successful of the fashion houses to have been started in the late 20th century. Other new houses have included Jean-Paul Gaultier and Thierry Mugler.
For all these fashion houses, custom clothing is no longer the main source of income, often costing much more than it earns through direct sales; it only adds the aura of fashion to their ventures in ready-to-wear clothing and related luxury products such as shoes and perfumes, and licensing ventures that earn greater returns for the company. Excessive commercialization and profit-making can be damaging, however. Cardin, for example, licensed with abandon in the 1980s and his name lost most of its fashionable cachet when anyone could buy Cardin luggage at a discount store.
The 1960s also featured a revolt against established fashion standards by mods, rockers, and hippies, as well as an increasing internationalization of the fashion scene. Jet travel had spawned a jet set that partied—and shopped—just as happily in New York as in Paris. Rich women no longer felt that a Paris dress was necessarily better than one sewn elsewhere. While Paris is still pre-eminent in the fashion world, it is no longer the sole arbiter of fashion.
NOTE:
The term can refer to:
the fashion houses or fashion designers that create exclusive and often trend-setting fashions
the fashions created
Legal status
In France, the term haute couture is protected by law and is defined by the Chambre de commerce et d'industrie de Paris based in Paris, France. Their rules state that only "those companies mentioned on the list drawn up each year by a commission domiciled at the Ministry for Industry are entitled to avail themselves" of the label haute couture. The criteria for haute couture were established in 1945 and updated in 1992.
To earn the right to call itself a couture house and to use the term haute couture in its advertising and any other way, members of the Chambre syndicale de la haute couture must follow these rules:
Design made-to-order for private clients, with one or more fittings.
Have a workshop (atelier) in Paris that employs at least fifteen people full-time.
Each season (i.e., twice a year), present a collection to the Paris press, comprising at least thirty-five runs with outfits for both daytime wear and evening wear.
However, the term haute couture may have been misused by ready-to-wear brands since the late 1980s, so that its true meaning may have become blurred with that of prêt-à-porter (the French term for ready-to-wear fashion) in the public perception. Every haute couture house also markets prêt-à-porter collections, which typically deliver a higher return on investment than their custom clothing[citation needed]. In fact, much of the haute couture displayed at fashion shows today is rarely sold; it is created to enhance the prestige of the house[citation needed]. Falling revenues have forced a few couture houses to abandon their less profitable couture division and concentrate solely on the less prestigious prêt-à-porter. These houses, such as Italian designer Antonio Capucci, all of whom have their workshops in Italy, are no longer considered haute couture.
Many top designer fashion houses, such as Chanel, use the word for some of their special collections. These collections are often not for sale or they are very difficult to purchase. Sometimes, "haute couture" doesn't mean just creation of new models of cloth wear, but it's also a type of fine art, like any other ones, as sculpture, painting, music and more. Moreover, "haute couture" can even include all of the mentioned components.
History
French leadership in European fashion may perhaps be dated from the 18th century, when the art, architecture, music, and fashions of the French court at Versailles were imitated across Europe[citation needed]. Visitors to Paris brought back clothing that was then copied by local dressmakers. Stylish women also ordered fashion dolls dressed in the latest Parisian fashion to serve as models.
As railroads and steamships made European travel easier, it was increasingly common for wealthy women to travel to Paris to shop for clothing and accessories. French fitters and dressmakers were commonly thought to be the best in Europe, and real Parisian garments were considered better than local imitations.
The couturier Charles Frederick Worth (October 13, 1826–March 10, 1895), is widely considered the father of haute couture as it is known today. Although born in Bourne, Lincolnshire, England, Worth made his mark in the French fashion industry. While he created one-of-a-kind designs to please some of his titled or wealthy customers, he is best known for preparing a portfolio of designs that were shown on live models at the House of Worth. Clients selected one model, specified colors and fabrics, and had a duplicate garment tailor-made in Worth's workshop. Worth combined individual tailoring with a standardization more characteristic of the ready-to-wear clothing industry, which was also developing during this period.
Following in Worth's footsteps were Callot Soeurs, Patou, Poiret, Vionnet, Fortuny, Lanvin, Chanel, Mainbocher, Schiaparelli, Balenciaga, and Dior. Some of these fashion houses still exist today, under the leadership of modern designers.
In the 1960s a group of young designers who had trained under men like Dior and Balenciaga left these established couture houses and opened their own establishments. The most successful of these young designers were Yves Saint Laurent, Pierre Cardin, André Courrèges, and Emanuel Ungaro. Japanese native and Paris-based Hanae Mori, a woman, was also successful in establishing her own line.
Lacroix is perhaps the most successful of the fashion houses to have been started in the late 20th century. Other new houses have included Jean-Paul Gaultier and Thierry Mugler.
For all these fashion houses, custom clothing is no longer the main source of income, often costing much more than it earns through direct sales; it only adds the aura of fashion to their ventures in ready-to-wear clothing and related luxury products such as shoes and perfumes, and licensing ventures that earn greater returns for the company. Excessive commercialization and profit-making can be damaging, however. Cardin, for example, licensed with abandon in the 1980s and his name lost most of its fashionable cachet when anyone could buy Cardin luggage at a discount store.
The 1960s also featured a revolt against established fashion standards by mods, rockers, and hippies, as well as an increasing internationalization of the fashion scene. Jet travel had spawned a jet set that partied—and shopped—just as happily in New York as in Paris. Rich women no longer felt that a Paris dress was necessarily better than one sewn elsewhere. While Paris is still pre-eminent in the fashion world, it is no longer the sole arbiter of fashion.
NOTE:
Bow tie
The bow tie is a men's necktie popularly worn with formal attire, such as suits or dinner jackets. It consists of a ribbon of fabric tied around the collar in a symmetrical manner such that the two opposite ends form loops. Ready-tied bow ties are available, in which the distinctive bow is sewn into shape and the band around the neck incorporates a clip. Some "clip-ons" dispense with the band altogether, instead clipping to the collar. The traditional bow tie, consisting of a strip of cloth one must tie, may be known as a "self-tie" bow tie to distinguish it. Bow ties may be made of silk, polyester, cotton, or a mixture of fabrics. Some fabrics (e.g., wool) are much less common for bow ties than for ordinary neckties.
Origin and History
The bow tie originated among Croatian mercenaries during the Prussian wars of the 17th century: the Croats used a scarf around the neck to hold together the opening of their shirts. This was soon adopted (under the name cravat, derived from the French for "Croat") by the upper classes in France, then a leader in fashion, and flourished in the 18th and 19th centuries. The French novelist Honoré de Balzac even wrote a book on the subject.
It is uncertain whether the cravat then evolved into the bow tie and necktie, or whether the cravat gave rise to the bow tie, which in turn led to the necktie.
Stereotypes of bow tie wearers
Bow ties tend to be associated with particular professions, such as architects, attorneys, university professors, and politicians. Pediatricians frequently wear bow ties. Infants can't grab them, and they don't get in places where they would be soiled.
In American culture, bow ties tend to be associated with either New England idyllic preppy culture or the culture of the white aristocratic South.
Bow ties are commonly seen in popular culture as items of sophistication, such as those stereotypically worn by professors in movies and fictional spy characters such as James Bond. However, they have also been adopted into the "uniform" of clowns and male strippers, and such associations have lent bow ties a less serious image. Therefore, the "bow tie" presents somewhat of an oxymoron or paradox to anyone trying to define a particular style to be attached to the bow tie.
Current
Although the necktie is more prominent in today's society, being seen at business meetings, formal functions, schools, and sometimes even at home, the bow tie is making a comeback with fun-formal events such as dinner, cocktail parties and nights out on the town. Bow ties are still popular with men of all ages in the American South. It is also still much more common to wear a bow tie with a dinner jacket than it is to wear a necktie with one; the latter, in fact, is technically incorrect.
The dress code of "black tie" requires a black bow tie. Most military mess dress incorporates a bow tie.
A pretied bow tie
Shown on the right is one style of "ready tied" bow tie; there is also a clip-on that does not go around the neck but clips to the collar points; these are the simplest type to put on, but are also considered somewhat of a faux pas. If choosing a "self-tie" bow tie, there are usually two shapes available: the "bat wing", which is parallel-sided like a cricket bat, and the "thistle", sometimes known as the "butterfly". An example of each can be seen above also. Which is worn is a matter of personal preference. Some other shapes do exist, for instance with pointed tips at both ends. Both of these are of the double-ended type, with both ends shaped; occasionally one still sees bow ties of the single-ended type, in which only one end flares out to give the batwing or thistle shape, and the other remains thin. To tie one of these requires careful consideration, to ensure the broader end finishes in front of the thinner one.
Designers
Leading designers of bow ties include Carrot & Gibbs, Charvet, Duchamp, Robert Charles and Paul Smith who are renowned for bow ties with interesting and colourful designs. Likewise designers Frederick Theak and CT Shirts are leaders in formal bow ties (black formal and white marcella bow ties). Within the UK, leading retailers of some of the aforementioned designers include Turnbull & Asser, John Lewis Partnership, House of Fraser, and Selfridges. Within the US retailers include the department stores Bergdorf Goodman and Neiman Marcus, as well as noted specialty shops such as Brooks Brothers. With the growth of the Internet, many specialized bow retailers and mail order companies have appeared online carrying a wide selection previously seen by many traditional retailers as too broad. These include such major sites as 319 Men's "CharlestonBows.Com", R. Hanauer's "Bowties.Com", BeauTies Ltd. of Vermont's "beautiesltd.com", and the popular Ben Silver. Lee Allison, of Chicago, creates bow ties with whimsical motifs, such as foozball men, as well as more traditional patterns.
Bow tie shapes in corporate logos
Some logos for popular product have incorporated bow tie shapes:
Budweiser beer had a bow tie logo in the 20th century that resembled overlapping red triangles.
Chevrolet vehicles[3] have worn the iconic bow tie logo since 1913.
Playboy Enterprises has a rabbit sporting a bow tie for logo.
NOTE:
Origin and History
The bow tie originated among Croatian mercenaries during the Prussian wars of the 17th century: the Croats used a scarf around the neck to hold together the opening of their shirts. This was soon adopted (under the name cravat, derived from the French for "Croat") by the upper classes in France, then a leader in fashion, and flourished in the 18th and 19th centuries. The French novelist Honoré de Balzac even wrote a book on the subject.
It is uncertain whether the cravat then evolved into the bow tie and necktie, or whether the cravat gave rise to the bow tie, which in turn led to the necktie.
Stereotypes of bow tie wearers
Bow ties tend to be associated with particular professions, such as architects, attorneys, university professors, and politicians. Pediatricians frequently wear bow ties. Infants can't grab them, and they don't get in places where they would be soiled.
In American culture, bow ties tend to be associated with either New England idyllic preppy culture or the culture of the white aristocratic South.
Bow ties are commonly seen in popular culture as items of sophistication, such as those stereotypically worn by professors in movies and fictional spy characters such as James Bond. However, they have also been adopted into the "uniform" of clowns and male strippers, and such associations have lent bow ties a less serious image. Therefore, the "bow tie" presents somewhat of an oxymoron or paradox to anyone trying to define a particular style to be attached to the bow tie.
Current
Although the necktie is more prominent in today's society, being seen at business meetings, formal functions, schools, and sometimes even at home, the bow tie is making a comeback with fun-formal events such as dinner, cocktail parties and nights out on the town. Bow ties are still popular with men of all ages in the American South. It is also still much more common to wear a bow tie with a dinner jacket than it is to wear a necktie with one; the latter, in fact, is technically incorrect.
The dress code of "black tie" requires a black bow tie. Most military mess dress incorporates a bow tie.
A pretied bow tie
Shown on the right is one style of "ready tied" bow tie; there is also a clip-on that does not go around the neck but clips to the collar points; these are the simplest type to put on, but are also considered somewhat of a faux pas. If choosing a "self-tie" bow tie, there are usually two shapes available: the "bat wing", which is parallel-sided like a cricket bat, and the "thistle", sometimes known as the "butterfly". An example of each can be seen above also. Which is worn is a matter of personal preference. Some other shapes do exist, for instance with pointed tips at both ends. Both of these are of the double-ended type, with both ends shaped; occasionally one still sees bow ties of the single-ended type, in which only one end flares out to give the batwing or thistle shape, and the other remains thin. To tie one of these requires careful consideration, to ensure the broader end finishes in front of the thinner one.
Designers
Leading designers of bow ties include Carrot & Gibbs, Charvet, Duchamp, Robert Charles and Paul Smith who are renowned for bow ties with interesting and colourful designs. Likewise designers Frederick Theak and CT Shirts are leaders in formal bow ties (black formal and white marcella bow ties). Within the UK, leading retailers of some of the aforementioned designers include Turnbull & Asser, John Lewis Partnership, House of Fraser, and Selfridges. Within the US retailers include the department stores Bergdorf Goodman and Neiman Marcus, as well as noted specialty shops such as Brooks Brothers. With the growth of the Internet, many specialized bow retailers and mail order companies have appeared online carrying a wide selection previously seen by many traditional retailers as too broad. These include such major sites as 319 Men's "CharlestonBows.Com", R. Hanauer's "Bowties.Com", BeauTies Ltd. of Vermont's "beautiesltd.com", and the popular Ben Silver. Lee Allison, of Chicago, creates bow ties with whimsical motifs, such as foozball men, as well as more traditional patterns.
Bow tie shapes in corporate logos
Some logos for popular product have incorporated bow tie shapes:
Budweiser beer had a bow tie logo in the 20th century that resembled overlapping red triangles.
Chevrolet vehicles[3] have worn the iconic bow tie logo since 1913.
Playboy Enterprises has a rabbit sporting a bow tie for logo.
NOTE:
Debutante Dress
A debutante dress is a white evening gown, accompanied by white gloves and pearls worn by young women at their debutante ball. Debutante balls were traditional coming of age celebrations for eligible young ladies ready to be presented to society as ready for marriage.History of the Debutante Gown
Required rules of dress
A young ladies gown was regulated by a set of meticulously defined rules which were strictly enforced. These rules varied from Monarchy to Monarchy and didn't always follow the fashion of the time. White was the preferred color for her gown, although soft colors such as ivory or eggshell were acceptable as long as they were over a white background. The headdress always included feathers and a veil although the number and size of the feathers varied with the time. Married women were required to wear a tiara.
Georgian Era
A young lady in a Georgian era debutante gown.
During the reign of King George III and Queen Charlotte, the debutante dress featured a hoop skirt and elaborate trimmings which included a single ostrich plume worn on the head, even though simple dresses with high waists were favored. During the reign of King George IV, the hoop skirt was excluded and the style for a debutante gown became a variation of whatever was considered popular for formal evening wear during the period.
Victorian Era
For a young woman of this time, It was not an un-common practice for women to have their debutante gown modified into a wedding dress. These gowns were often made with two different bodices, one being for the presentation and the other one for her wedding. The dresses of this time were almost always short-sleeved and had to have a low neckline. However a doctor's certificate could be presented at the time stating that low cut was injurious to the young woman's health.
Queen Victoria was said to have hated small feathers, so orders were sent out that Her Majesty wished to see the feathers.
Mrs. Ethel McLaughlin in her 1904 court dress showing the Prince of Wales plume
as the young lady approached. Late in Queen Victoria's reign and into the court of Edward VII, the necessary headdress was three feathers arranged in a Prince of Wales plume. A center feather slightly higher than the two on each side worn slightly on the left side of the head.
For young ladies and women to be presented who were in mourning, it was acceptable for their dresses and veils to be black. No matter how cold the weather was on this special day, absolutely no cloaks, shawls, capes, or wraps of any kind were permitted to be worn. Those items remained in the lady's carriage.
NOTE:
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