2008年9月28日星期日

Bowler hat

Bowler hat 1916The bowler hat, also known as a derby (US) or billycock[1], is a hard felt hat with a rounded crown originally created in 1849 for Edward Coke, the younger brother of the 2nd Earl of Leicester.
History
A display of new bowler hats for sale in 2005 (Portobello Market, London)
The bowler hat was devised in 1849 by the London hatmakers Thomas and William Bowler to fulfil an order placed by the firm of hatters Lock & Co. of St. James's, a company established in 1676 which is still in business. Lock & Co. had been commissioned by a customer to design a close-fitting, low-crowned hat to protect his gamekeepers' heads from low-hanging branches while on horseback. The keepers had previously worn top hats, which were easily knocked off and damaged. It was also hoped that the new style of hat would protect the keepers if they were attacked by poachers. Lock & Co. then commissioned the Bowler brothers to solve the problem. While most accounts state that the customer was William Coke, a nephew of the 1st Earl of Leicester, recent research has cast some doubt on this, and it is now believed that it was instead Edward Coke, the younger brother of the 2nd Earl of Leicester.
When Coke arrived in London on 17 December 1849 to collect his hat he reportedly placed it on the floor and stamped hard on it twice to test its strength; the hat withstood this test and Coke paid 12 shillings for it.[3] In accordance with Locks & Company's usual practice, the hat was called the "Coke" hat after the customer who had ordered it, and this is most likely why the hat became became known as the "Billy Coke" or "Billycock" hat in Norfolk.
Peaking in popularity towards the end of the 19th century the bowler hat offered a middle ground between the formality of the top hat, which was associated with the upper classes, and the casual soft flat caps worn by the working classes.
Cultural significance
The bowler became a cultural identifier, ironically with two completely different meanings: throughout most of England it was associated with professional servants, e.g. butlers, and so upon seeing a man wearing a bowler in a pub or on the street, it was fairly safe to assume he was a "gentleman's gentleman," meaning a valet, manservant or butler; in London itself, however, it was associated with professionals, and so a man wearing a bowler in The City could safely be assumed to be a lawyer, stockbroker, banker or government official. As the traditional headwear of London city 'gents' it has become something of an English cultural icon. The bowler was also to some extent adopted by the surrealist movement, particularly by Magritte, as an object which typified the absurdity of "normal life" and appeared in many surrealist paintings in one guise or another.
However, Englishmen stopped wearing hats as a matter of course in the 1960s, and most young English people in the 21st century have never seen a bowler hat worn as part of normal dress. The decline of the bowler is possibly linked to the rise in car ownership in the 1960s which would make it difficult to wear[original research?]. It is, however, still commonly seen worn at some formal public events, such as by town councillors at Armistice Day ceremonies. It is also traditionally worn by members of the Orange Order in Northern Ireland during their 12 July annual parades, though usage has declined. A bowler hat was once worn by the gaffer of a team of furniture removers although this tradition has died out.
In other countries
In the United States this hat is also known as a derby hat, after Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby, founder in 1780 of the Epsom Derby. The cultural significance of this style of hat was slightly different in the United States; though certainly not exclusively so, the derby tended to be associated with urban culture, and particularly with well-to-do people who had risen from the working class. Hence, it was often seen on the heads of "machine politicians", urban Irish-descended "ward heelers" and others, and so often appears in movies, comic books and comic strips of the 1930s and 1940s as a silent signal that the wearer is of this group. Al Smith, who exemplified the urban Tammany politician of the 1920s, was often seen in his distinctive derby; while typically, men's full-sized derbies are black, Al Smith always wore a brown derby.
A small bowler hat worn at an angle is typically referred to as a "gruff hat" or "pickle hat".
In Germany, the hat is known as Melone (melon), due to its shape. Similarly in France it is known as "chapeau melon".
The bowler hat - called a bombin - has also been worn by Quechua and Aymara women in Peru and Bolivia since the 1920s when it was introduced to Bolivia by British railway workers. For many years a factory in Italy manufactured the hats for the Bolivian market, but they are now produced locally.

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2008年9月27日星期六

Top Hat

Man wearing a top hat.
For the movie starring Fred Astaire, see Top Hat. For the theatrical lighting device, see Top hat (lighting). For the top hat roller coaster element, see Roller coaster elements.
A top hat, top-hat, cylinder hat, or plug hat[1] (sometimes also known by the nickname "topper") is a tall, flat-crowned, broad-brimmed hat worn by men throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. Now, it is usually worn only with morning dress or evening dress, or as a specific rock culture fashion statement, such as by guitarist Slash.
History
Top hats started to take over from the tricorne at the end of the 18th century; an illustration by Charles Vernet, Un Incroyable de 1796, shows a French dandy (one of the Incroyables et Merveilleuses) wearing such a hat[2]. Its appearance in Britain is thought to be in the 1790s.
Within 20 years top hats had become popular with all social classes, with even workmen wearing them. At that time those worn by members of the upper classes were usually made of felted beaver fur, while those worn by working men were made of rabbit fur; the generic name "stuff hat" was applied to hats made from fur. The hats became part of the uniforms worn by policemen (who could stand on them to look over walls) and postmen (to give them the appearance of authority); since these people spent most of their time outdoors, their hats were topped with black oilcloth.
During the early part of the 19th century felted beaver fur was gradually replaced by silk "hatter's plush", though the silk topper met with resistance from those who preferred the beaver hat. A short-lived fad in the 1820s and 1830s was the "Wellington" style of top-hat with concave sides. The peak of the top hat's popularity in the 1840s and the 1850s saw it reach its most extreme form, with ever higher crowns and narrow brims. The stovepipe hat was a variety with straight sides, while one with slightly convex sides was called the "chimney pot".[4] The stovepipe hat was popularized in the US by Abraham Lincoln during his presidency; it is said that Lincoln would keep important letters inside the hat.
During the middle part of the 19th century the top hat developed from a fashion into a symbol of urban respectability, and this was assured when Prince Albert started wearing them in 1850; the subsequent rise in popularity of the top hat led to a decline in beaver hats, sharply reducing the size of the beaver-trapping industry in North America.
The nineteenth century is sometimes known as the Century of the Top Hat. The historian James Laver once made the observation that an assemblage of "toppers" looked like factory chimneys and thus added to the mood of the industrial era. In England, post-Brummel dandies went in for flared crowns and swooping brims. Their counterparts in France, known as the “Incroyables,” wore top hats of such outlandish dimensions that there was no room for them in overcrowded cloakrooms until Antoine Gibus came along in 1823 and invented the collapsible top hat. Such hats are often called an "opera hat", though the term can also be synonymous with any top hat, or any tall formal men's hat. In the 1920s they were also often called "high hats".
Men wore top hats for business, pleasure and formal occasions — pearl gray for daytime, black for day or night. At one point Top hat etiquette dictated a man should not wear it flat on his head. He should wear it tilted forward and to one side — very slightly though, no more than 10 degrees in either direction — about the same angle Lord Ribblesdale wore his in the famous portrait by John Singer Sargent.
However, at its peak in popularity a reaction developed against the top hat, with the middle classes adopting bowler hats and soft felt hats such as fedoras, which were more convenient for city life, as well as being suitable for mass production. In comparison, a top hat needed to be handmade by a skilled hatter, with few young people willing to take up what was obviously a dying trade. The top hat became associated with the upper class, becoming a target for satirists and social critics. By the end of World War I it had become a rarity in everyday life. It continued to be used for formal wear, with a Morning dress in the daytime and with evening clothes (tailcoat) until the late 1930s. (The top hat is featured as one of the original tokens in the board game Monopoly.)
The top hat persisted in certain areas, such as politics and international diplomacy, for several more years. In the newly-formed Soviet Union, there was a fierce debate as to whether its diplomats should follow the international conventions and wear a top hat, with the pro-toppers winning the vote by a large majority.
Top-hats are sometimes associated with stage magic. In 1814 a French magician named Louis Comte became the first conjurer on record to pull a white rabbit out of a top hat. They also appear as a form of party hat and are popular amongst persons in the gothic subculture.
Description
The structure underneath the felt or silk of a top hat was made of a material called goss. This was made from layers of calico covered in a hard glue. When gently heated over a flame, the glue softens, allowing the hat to be moulded or "blocked" into shape.

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Apollo/Skylab A7L

The A7L Apollo & Skylab spacesuit is the primary pressure suit worn by NASA astronauts for Project Apollo, the three manned Skylab flights, and the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project between 1968 and the termination of the Apollo program in 1975. The "A7L" designation is used by NASA as the seventh Apollo spacesuit designed and built by ILC Dover, a pressure suit manufacturer located south of Dover, Delaware. The A7L is a design evolution of ILC's A5L and A6L. The A5L was the initial design. The A6L introduced the integrated thermal and micrometeroid cover layer. After the Apollo 1 fire, the suit was upgraded to be fire proof and given the designation A7L.

Basic Design

Apollo 11 A7L space suit worn by Neil Armstrong
The basic design of the A7L suit was a one piece, five-layer "torso-limb" suit with convoluted joints made of synthetic rubber at the shoulders, elbows, wrist, hips, ankle, and knee joints, "link-net" meshing to prevent the suit from ballooning at the joints, and a shoulder "cable block" assembly to allow the shoulder to be extended and retracted by its wearer. Metal rings at the neck and forearms allowed for the connection of the pressure gloves and the famous Apollo "fishbowl helmet" (adopted by NASA as it allowed an unrestricted view, as well as eliminating the need for a visor seal required in the Mercury and Gemini & Apollo "Block I" spacesuit helmets). A "cover layer," which was designed to be fireproof after the Apollo 1 launchpad fire, was attached to the pressure garment assembly and was removable for repairs and inspection. All A7L suits featured a vertical zipper that went from the shoulder assembly of the suit down to the crotch for entering and exiting the suit.

Extravehicular Pressure Garment Assembly

Torso Limb Suit Assembly
Between Apollos 7 and 14, the two lunar module astronauts, the Commander (CDR) and Lunar Module pilot (LMP), had Torso Limb Suit Assemblies (TSLA) with six life support connections placed in two parallel columns on the chest. The 4 lower connectors passed oxygen, an electrical headset/biomed connector was on the upper right, and a bidirectional cooling water connector was on the upper left.

Integrated Thermal Micrometeroid Garment
Covering the Torso Limb Suit Assembly was an Integrated Thermal Micrometeroid Garment (ITMG). This garment protected the suit from abrasion and protected the astronaut from thermal solar radiation and micrometeoroids which could puncture the suit. The garment was made from thirteen layers of material which were (from inside to outside):rubber coated nylon, 5 layers of aluminized Mylar, 4 layers of nonwoven Dacron, 2 layers of aluminized Kapton film/Beta marquisette laminate, and Teflon coated Beta filament cloth.

Additionally, the ITMG also used a patch of "Chromel-R" woven steel (the familiar silver-colored patch seen especially on the suits worn by the Apollo 11 crew) for abrasion protection from the Portable Life Support System (PLSS) backpack. Chromel-R was also used on the uppers of the lunar boots and on the EVA gloves. Finally, patches of Teflon were used for additional abrasion protection on the knees waist and shoulders of the ITMG.

Starting with Apollo 13, a red band of Beta cloth was incorporated the commander's ITMG on each arm and leg, as well as a red stripe on the EVA visor assembly to easily distinguish the commander from the lunar module pilot on the lunar surface.

Liquid Cooling Garment
Lunar crews also wore a three-layer Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment (LCG) or "union suit" with plastic tubing which circulated water to cool the astronaut down, minimizing sweating and fogging of the suit helmet. Water was supplied to the LCG from the PLSS backpack.

Intravehicular (CMP) Pressure Garment Assembly

Torso Limb Suit Assembly
The Command Module pilot (CMP) had a TSLA similar to the commander and lunar module pilot, but with unnecessary hardware deleted since the CMP would not be performing any extravehicular activities. For example, the CMP's TSLA only one set of gas connectors instead of two, and had no water cooling connector. Also deleted was the pressure relief valve in the sleeve of the suit and the tether mounting attachments which were used in the lunar module. The TSLA for the CMP also deleted an arm bearing that allowed the arm to rotate above the elbow.

Intravehicular Cover Layer
Command module pilots only wore a three-layer Intravehicular Cover Layer (IVCL) of nomex and beta cloth for fire and abrasion protection.

Constant Wear Garment
The CMP wore a simpler cotton fabric union suit called the Constant Wear Garment (CWG) underneath the TSLA instead of the water cooled Liquid Cooling Garment. His cooling came directly from the flow of oxygen in his suit. When not performing lunar EVA's, the LMP and CDR also wore a CWG instead of the LCG.

A7LB Spacesuit (Apollo & Skylab)

For the last three Apollo lunar flights Apollos 15, 16, and 17, the CDR and LMP started wearing a new moonwalking suit designed for longer duration J-series missions, in which three EVAs would be conducted and the lunar rover (LRV) would be used for the first time. Originally developed by ILC-Dover as the "A9L," but given the designation "A7LB" by NASA[3], the new suit incorporated two new joints at the neck and waist. The waist joint was added to allow the astronaut to sit on the LRV and the neck joint was to provide additional visibility while driving the LRV. Because of the waist joint, the six life-support connecters were rearragned from the parallel pattern to a set of two "triangles," and the up-and-down zipper was relocated to the left front side of the suit, going around the back, and terminating on the right shoulder.[2]

In addition, the EVA backpacks were modified to carry more oxygen, lithium hydroxide (LiOH), more power, and cooling water for the longer EVAs. [2]

Because the J-series CSMs incorporated the Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) Bay, which used special film cameras similar to those used on Air Force spy satellites, and required a "deep space" EVA for retrieval, the CMP for each of the three J-series missions wore a five-connector A7LB based H-series A7L suits, with the liquid cooling connections eliminated as the CMP would be attached to a life-support umbilical (like that used on Gemini EVAs) and only an "oxygen purge system" (OPS) would be used, along with a "red apple" lanyard, for emergency backup in the case of the failure of the umbilical. The CMP wore the commander's red-striped EVA visor assembly, while the LMP, who performed a "stand-up EVA" (to prevent the umbilical from getting "fouled up" and to store the film into the CSM) in the spacecraft hatch and connected to his normal life-support connections, wore the plain white EVA visor assembly.

For the three manned Skylab missions, all three astronauts wore a slightly modified A7LB suit for launch, docking, undocking, and EVA. The suit had a simplified and less expensive Integrated Thermal and Micrometeroid Garment (ITMG), and a simpler and less expensive extravehicular visor assembly.

With the exception of the Orbital Workshop (OWS) repairs carried out by Skylab 2 and Skylab 3, all of the Skylab EVAs were conducted in connection to the routine maintenance carried out on the Apollo Telescope Mount, which housed the station's solar telescopes. Because of the short duration of those EVAs, and as a need to protect the delicate instruments, the Apollo lunar EVA backpack was replaced with a Gemini-style umbilical assembly, except that it was modified to incorporated both breathing air (Skylab's atmosphere was 80% oxygen and 20% nitrogen at 5 psi) and liquid water for cooling. The assembly was worn on the astronaut's waist and served as the interface between the umbilical and the suit. An emergency oxygen pack was strapped to the wearer's right thigh and is able to supply a 30 minute emergency supply of pure oxygen in the case of umbilical failure. An EVA visor assembly similar to that used today on the Shuttle/ISS Extravehicular Mobility Unit was worn over the pressure helmet, but Apollo EVA gloves were used.

For the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, NASA decided to use the A7LB CMP pressure suit assembly worn on the J-missions with a few changes to save cost and weight since an EVA was not planned during the mission. The changes included a simplified cover layer which was cheaper, lighter and more durable as well as the removal of the pressure relief valve and unused gas connectors. No EVA visor assemblies or EVA gloves were carried on the mission.[5]

As a note, the ASTP A7LB suit was the only Apollo suit to use the "worm" logo, a logo that became familiar with all of NASA's pressure, space, and flight suits and all Space Shuttle orbiters between 1981 and 2000.

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History of Armour

Greek Mycenaean 1400 BC armour.
Many factors have affected the development of armour throughout human history. Significant factors in the development of armour include the economic and technological necessities of armour production. For instance plate armour first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper. Also modern militaries usually do not provide the best armour to their forces since doing so would be prohibitively costly. At times the development of armour has run parallel to the development of increasingly effective weaponry on the battlefield, with armourers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.
Ancient historical use of armour
In European history, well-known armour types include the lorica segmentata of the Roman legions, the mail hauberk of the early medieval age, and the full steel plate harness worn by later Medieval and Renaissance knights, and a few key components (breast and back plates) by heavy cavalry in several European countries until the first year of World War I. (1914–15).
In November 2006 it was announced in Greece that the oldest surviving armour in Greece was restored and will be put on display soon (see picture). The armour dates from the Mycenaean Era around 1400 BC, some 200 years before the Trojan War and is referred to as the Dendra panoply.[citation needed][4]
In East Asian history laminated armour such as lamellar, and styles similar to the coat of plates, and brigandine were commonly used. Later cuirasses and plates were also used. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armour was made out of exotic animals such as rhinoceros. Chinese influence in Japan would result in the Japanese adopting Chinese styles, their samurai armour being a result of this influence.
Middle Ages armour

Gothic Armoury (1890s)

Japanese Samurai armour, Tosei Gusoku, of the Hatisuka Clan
Mail
Mail, sometimes called by the neologism "chainmail", is made of interlocking iron rings, which may be riveted or welded shut. It is believed to have been invented by the Celtic people in Eastern Europe about 500 BC.[citation needed] When these Celts moved West they took mail with them. Most cultures who used mail used the Celtic word Byrnne or a variant, suggesting the Celts as the originators.[citation needed] The Roman Army used mail for almost all of its history. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in 476 AD the infrastructure to make plate was largely lost in Europe, as a result mail was the best available armour during the ensuing Early Medieval period.
Transition to plate

Turkish plated mail
Gradually, small additional plates or disks of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. By the late 1200s, the knees were capped, and two circular disks, called besagews were fitted to protect the underarms. A variety of methods for improving the protection provided by mail were used as armourers seemingly experimented.[citation needed] Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces. The coat of plates was developed, an armour made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat.
Early plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th–15th century were made of iron. Iron armour could be carburised or case hardened to give a surface of harder steel[5]. Plate armour became cheaper than mail by the 15th century as it required much less labour and labour had become much more expensive after the Black Death, though it did require larger furnaces to produce larger blooms. Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow and groin. Another advantage of plate was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate.[6]
The small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, the bascinet, as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. Additionally, several new forms of fully enclosed helmets were introduced in the late 1300s to replace the great helm, such as the sallet and barbute and later the armet and close helm.
Probably the most recognised style of armour in the World became the plate armour associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages, but continuing to the early 17th Century Age of Enlightenment in all European countries.

16th century plate armour for men and horses (Metropolitan Museum)
By about 1400 the full harness of plate armour had been developed in armouries of Lombardy[7] Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armour.
In the early 15th century, small "hand cannon" first began to be used, in the Hussite Wars, in combination with Wagenburg tactics, allowing infantry to defeat armoured knights on the battlefield. At the same time crossbows were made more powerful to pierce armour. Rather than dooming the use of body armour, the threat of small firearms intensified the use and further refinement of plate armour. There was a 150 year period in which better and more metallurgically advanced steel armour was being used, precisely because of the danger posed by the gun. Hence, guns and cavalry in plate armour were "threat and remedy" together on the battlefield for almost 400 years. By the 15th century Italian armour plates were almost always made of steel[8]. In Southern Germany armourers began to harden their steel armour only in the late 15th century. They would continue to harden their steel for the next century because they quenched and tempered their product which allowed for the fire-gilding to be combined with tempering[9].

King Philip II of Spain (r. 1556–1598) in a luxurious half-armour
The quality of the metal used in armour deteriorated as armies became bigger and armour was made thicker, necessitating breeding of larger cavalry horses. If during the 14–15th centuries armour seldom weighed more than 15kgs, than by the late 16th century it weighed 25kg[10]. The increasing weight and thickness of late 16th century armour therefore gave substantial resistance.
In the early years of pistol and arquebuses, firearms were relatively low in velocity. The full suits of armour, or breast plates actually stopped bullets fired from a modest distance. The front breast plates were, in fact, commonly shot as a test. The impact point would often be encircled with engraving to point it out. This was called the "proof". Armour often also bore an insignia of the maker, especially if it was of good quality. Crossbow bolts, if still used, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet unless fired from close range.
In effect, rather than making plate armour obsolete, the use of firearms stimulated the development of plate armour into its later stages. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending arquebuseers without being easily killed. Full suits of armour were actually worn by generals and princely commanders right up to the second decade of the 18th century. It was the only way they could be mounted and survey the overall battlefield with safety from distant musket fire.
The horse was afforded protection from lances and infantry weapons by steel plate barding. This gave the horse protection and enhanced the visual impression of a mounted knight. Late in the era, elaborate barding was used in parade armour.
Early modern period armour

World War I German Stahlhelm and prototype anti-shrapnel armour.
Gradually starting in the mid 16th century, one plate element after another was discarded to save weight for foot soldiers.
Breast and back plates continued to be used through the entire period of the 18th century through Napoleonic times in many European (heavy) cavalry units, until the early 20th century. From their introduction, muskets could pierce plate armour, so cavalry had to be far more mindful of the fire.
Modern period armour
Machine gunners in that war also occasionally wore a crude type of heavy armour.
At the start of World War I the French Cuirassiers, in the thousands, rode out to engage the German Cavalry who likewise used helmets and armour. By that period, the shiny armour plate was covered in dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic style helmets. Their armour was meant to protect only against sabres and light lances. The cavalry had to beware of high velocity rifles and machine guns like the foot soldiers, who at least had a trench to protect them.
The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of wooden warships to explosive or incendiary shells. The first ironclad battleship, La Gloire, was launched by the French Navy in 1859;[11] she prompted the British Royal Navy to start building ironclads. After the first clashes of ironclads took place during the American Civil War, it became clear that the ironclad had replaced the unarmored line-of-battle ship as the most powerful warship afloat.[12]
Ironclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defense ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid evolution of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel which carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea)[citation needed], more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible.
The rapid pace of change in the ironclad period meant that many ships were obsolete as soon as they were complete, and that naval tactics were in a state of flux. Many ironclads were built to make use of the ram or the torpedo, which a number of naval designers considered the crucial weapons of naval combat. There is no clear end to the ironclad period, but towards the end of the 1890s the term ironclad dropped out of use. New ships were increasingly constructed to a standard pattern and designated battleships or armored cruisers.

Austro-Hungarian armoured train from 1915
Armoured trains saw use during the 19th century in the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), the First and Second Boer Wars (1880-81 and 1899–1902), the First (1914–1918) and Second World Wars (1939–1945) and the First Indochina War (1946–1954). The most intensive use of armoured trains was during the Russian Civil War (1918–1920).
During the Second Boer War on 15 November 1899, Winston Churchill, then a war-correspondent, was travelling onboard an armoured train when it was ambushed by Boer commandos. Churchill and many of the train's garrison were captured, though many others escaped, including wounded placed on the train's engine.

Armoured train at Bloemfontein, South Africa, circa 1914. It was worked by the South African Engineer Corps, and used against rebels during World War I.
Towards the end of World War I, armies on both sides were experimenting with plate armour as protection against shrapnel and ricocheting projectiles. The first proposal for a tank was by the Austrian Oberleutenant Günther Burstyn who, in 1911, proposed a design for "motor artillery" (Motorengeschütz) with a turret, but his design never progressed beyond a German patent in 1912.[13]

British World War I Mark IV tank with experimental "Tadpole Tail"
Tank or "landship" development, originally conducted by the British Navy under the auspices of the Landships Committee was sponsored by the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill and proceeded through a number of prototypes culminating in the Mark I tank prototype, named Mother.[14] The first tank to engage in battle was designated D1, a British Mark I, during the Battle of Flers-Courcellette on 15 September 1916.[15]
In contrast to World War II, Germany fielded very few tanks during WWI, with only 15 of the A7V type being produced in Germany during the war.[16] The first tank versus tank action took place on 24 April 1918 at Villers-Bretonneux, France, when three British Mark IVs met three German A7Vs.
Mechanical problems, poor mobility and piecemeal tactical deployment limited the military significance of the tank in World War I and the tank did not fulfil its promise of rendering trench warfare obsolete. Nonetheless, it was clear to military thinkers on both sides that tanks would play a significant role in future conflicts.
The development of effective anti-aircraft artillery before the Second World War meant that the pilots, once the "knights of the air" during the First World War were left far more vulnerable to ground fire. This not only created the requirement for the introduction of the cockpit armour plating that eventually came to be known variously as the "bucket" or the "bathtub", but also the design of such aircraft as the Il-2 which also were heavily armoured to protect the fuel and engine, allowing much greater survivability during ground assaults.
Current armour use

A modern ballistic vest.

Riot police with body protection against blowsToday, ballistic vests, euphemistically known as a flak jacket, made of ballistic cloth (e.g kevlar, dyneema, twaron, spectra etc.) and ceramic or metal plates are common among police forces, security staff, corrections officers and some branches of the military.
The US Army has adopted Interceptor body armour, which uses Enhanced Small Arms Protective Inserts (E-S.A.P.I) in the chest, sides and back of the armour. Each plate is rated to stop a range of ammunition including 3 hits from a 7.62×51 NATO AP round at a range of 10 m, though accounts in Iraq and Afghanistan tell of soldiers shot as many as seven times in the chest without penetration[citation needed]. Dragon Skin body armor is another ballistic vest which is currently in testing and reportedly provides even better protection.
Despite advances in the protection offered by ballistic armour against projectiles, as the name implies, modern ballistic armour is much less impervious to stabbing weapons unless they are augmented with anti-knife/anti-stab armour (usually a form of mail)[citation needed].
Riot police are usually equipped with armour against blows.
Tank armour has progressed from the Second World War armour forms, now incorporating not only harder composites, but also Explosive Reactive armour designed to defeat shaped charges. As a result of this, the main battle tanks (MBT) designed since the late Cold War era can survive multiple RPG strikes with minimal effect on the crew or the operation of the vehicle. The light tanks that were the last descendants of the light cavalry during the Second World War have almost completely disappeared from the World's armed forces due to increased lethality of the weapons available to the vehicle-mounted infantry.
The armoured personnel carrier (APC) is a relatively recent development, stemming from trials and experiences during the Second World War. The APC allows the safe and rapid movement of infantry in a combat zone, minimising casualties and maximising mobility. APCs are fundamentally different from the previously used armoured half-tracks in that they offer a higher level of protection from artillery burst fragments, and greater mobility in more terrain types. The basic APC design was substantially expanded to an Infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) when properties of an armoured personnel carrier and a light tank were combined in one vehicle.
Naval armour has fundamentally changed from the Second World War doctrine of thicker plating to defend against shells, bombs and torpedos. Passive defence naval armour for use against shells and other projectile weapons has almost completely disappeared on modern warships. It has been replaced by systems designed to detect and evade, or in the case of the cruise missiles, to destroy threats, including extensive use of radar, sonar and electronic warfare.
Although the role of the ground attack aircraft significantly diminished after the Korean War, it re-emerged during the Vietnam War, and in the recognition of this, the US Air Force authorised the design and production of what was later to become the A-10 dedicated anti-armour and ground-attack aircraft of the Cold War.

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Armour

Armour (or armor) is protective covering, most commonly manufactured from metals, to prevent damage from being inflicted to an individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact weapons or projectiles, usually during combat.
While early armour tended to be worn as clothing intended to defend its wearer during combat between armed forces, armour has been used throughout recorded history, manufactured from a variety of materials, non-metallic and metallic. For much of military history the manufacture of metal armour in Europe has dominated the technology and employment of armour. Its production has been influential in the evolving industrial revolution, and influenced commercial development of metallurgy and engineering.
Armour production was a cause of the development of many important technologies of the Ancient World, including wood lamination, mining, metal refining, vehicle manufacture (chariot), leather processing, and later decorative metal working.
Armour was commonly used to protect only soldiers, foot and mounted. Starting with the rudimentary leather protection, the personal armour evolved to mail and full plated suit of armour. Armour was the single most influential factor in the development of firearms that revolutionised warfare, and has returned in the shape of armoured fighting vehicles in the attempt to enable ground troops to breach field defences unscathed. Sailors and pilots have also benefited from use of armour, with armoured warships dominating naval warfare until the building of the aircraft carriers.
War animals such as elephants and war horses, have also benefited from armour, the application for the later called barding. Armour has also been produced for hunting dogs that hunt dangerous game, such as boars.
First modern production technology for armour plating was used by the navies in construction of the Ironclad warships, and reaching its pinnacle of development with the battleship. It was the naval engineers that also constructed the first World War I "tanks" giving rise to armoured fighting vehicles protected by vehicle armour.
In modern ground forces' usage, the meaning of armour has expanded to include the role of troops in combat. After the evolution of armoured warfare, heavily armoured military forces are organised using armoured infantry, mounted in armoured fighting vehicles and replacing light infantry in many situations. In modern armoured warfare, armoured units equipped with tanks and infantry fighting vehicles serve the historic role of both the battle cavalry, light cavalry and dragoons, and belong to the armoured branch in a national army's organisation (sometimes, the armoured corps).
Air forces also sometimes employ armour. Aerial armour has been used, notably, in protecting the pilots during the Second World War, and in designing heavily armoured aircraft that would be expected to suffer more than usual damage from ground fire.
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Etymology
Although many think of armour as coming into use with the age of the knights, hence "shining armour" of the Romanticism, the word only makes an appearance in English as a borrowing from the French in the Middle Ages dated from 1297, as a "mail, defensive covering worn in combat" from Old French armeure, itself derived from the Latin armatura "arms and/or equipment" with the root arma "arms or gear". The word was reintroduced into the English language with the introduction of metal-clad warship in the mid 19th century.
Materials
Over the centuries a wide variety of materials have been used to manufacture personal and vehicle protection, including: hides, leather, bone, laminated wood, bronze, iron plate, rolled steel, and composite materials such as Kevlar, Dyneema and ceramics.
The resistance to penetration of armour is related to the thickness of the steel—2mm armour requires about three times as much energy to defeat as 1mm armour.
Use of armour
Armour had been used by all combat and many support Arms of Service, including: infantry, cavalry, artillery, warships, railway troops, aircraft, combat engineers, military medicine troops, and on occasion improvised use by logistics troops.
Characteristics of armour
Since the 15th century, most parts of the human body had been fitted with specialized steel pieces, typically worn over linen or woolen underclothes and attached to the body via leather straps and buckles and points. Mail protected those areas that could not be fitted with plate; for example, the back of the knee. Well-known constituent parts of plate armour include the helm, gauntlets, gorget or 'neckguard', breastplate, and greaves worn on the lower legs.

A suit of Gothic plate armour
For the elite full-body plate armour was custom-made for the individual. Most armour was bought off the shelf and some was modified to fit the wearer. The cost of armour varied considerably with time and place as well as the type of armour, coverage it provided and the cost of decoration. In the 8th century a suit of Frankish mail had cost 12 oxen; by 1600 a horseman's armour cost 2 oxen[1]. A typical suit of full plate harness cost around 1 pound sterling in 14th century England[2] and a man-at-arms in the same period made 1 shilling per day and so his armour cost about 20 days pay.[3] Plate armour was limited to those who could afford it: the nobility, landed classes and mercenary professional soldiers, who did most of the fighting in the Medieval period. Soldiers of lower standing generally wore less armour. Full plate armour made the wearer virtually impervious to sword blows as well as providing significant protection against arrows, bludgeons and even early firearms. Sword edges could not penetrate even relatively thin plate (as little as 1 mm). Also, although arrows shot from bows, crossbows and early firearms could occasionally pierce plate especially at close range, later improvements in the steel forging techniques and armour design made even this line of attack increasingly difficult. By its apex, hardened steel plate was almost impregnable on the battlefield. Knights were instead increasingly felled by polearms such as the halberd and blunt weapons such as maces or war hammers that could send concussive force through the plate armour resulting in injuries such as broken bones, organ haemorrhage and/or head trauma. Another tactic was to attempt to strike through the gaps between the armour pieces, using daggers, spears and spear points to attack the man-at-arms' eyes or joints.
Contrary to common misconceptions, a well-made suit of medieval 'battle' armour (as opposed to the primarily ceremonial 'parade' and 'tournament' armour popular with kings and nobility of later years) hindered its wearer no more than the equipment carried by soldiers today. It should be remembered that an armoured knight would be trained to wear armour from his teens, and would likely develop the technique and endurance needed to comfortably run, crawl, climb ladders, as well as mount and dismount his horse without recourse to a crane (a myth probably originating from an English music hall comedy of the 1830s, and popularised in Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court). A full suit of medieval plate is thought to have weighed little more than 60 lb (27 kg) on average, considerably lighter than the equipment often carried by the elite of today's armies. (For example, SAS patrols have been known to carry equipment weighing well over 200 lb (91 kg) for many miles.

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Motorcycle safety clothing

A motorcyclist wearing full safety clothing of helmet, gloves, boots and leathers
To improve motorcycle safety many countries mandate the wearing of protective clothing by motorcyclists, especially a helmet. Other protective gear may include certain types of jackets, gloves, boots, and pants. Jackets meant for motorcyclists are typically made of nylon, leather, or Kevlar. These jackets typically include heavy padding on the elbow, spine, and shoulder regions. Gloves are generally made of leather or Kevlar and some include carbon fiber knuckle protection. Boots, especially those for sport riding, include reinforcement and plastic caps on the ankle and toe areas. A well-protected motorcyclist will wear boots with heels that fit on motorcycle foot rests (pegs) and provide good ankle support. Pants are usually leather, nylon, or Kevlar. Except for helmets, none of these items are required by law in any state in the U.S. but are recommended by many of those who ride.
"Off road" riders wear a range of plastic armour to protect against injury from falling off, hitting other riders and bikes, debris kicked up from the rear wheel of leading bikes, and from running into track barriers protecting the public. This armour protects the extremities from breakage and dislocation and the back and chest from strain and broken bones. Although fairly efficient, it is of course not always completely effective. Many riders wear "roost protectors" designed specifically to protect against painful debris from other bikes, but are of no use in a fall or collision.
//
Leathers
"Leathers" are 1-piece suits, or 2-piece jackets and trousers worn by motorcyclists mainly for protection in a crash. The leather used is not fashion leather but protective leather which is stronger, moderately flexible and much tougher. Both leathers and joins (seams and zips) should be officially tested for ergonomics and impact abrasion, cut, tear and burst resistance. They do not have to be too heavy and there is no such thing as competition leather - just safe and unsafe leather and joins. The most common leather used for motorcycle wear is from cattle such as beef. An inexpensive 1.1–1.2 mm South American beef leather is both attractive and flexible and was considered entirely adequate in the 1990s for good road and racing suits. Kangaroo leather is becoming popular for its suppleness, light weight and strength compared with cowhide. The one-piece racing leather suit, usually referred to as 'racing leathers' was first used by legendary, ex-world champion motorcycle racer Geoff Duke. His suits, like the majority of those used in the 1950s, were made from horse hide.
Originally, motorcycle leathers were adapted from tank corps gear immediately following World War I. Duster coats, which tended to catch in the wheels, were switched for short coats. Wide-pegged breeches were worn by some motorcycle police and by dispatch riders in World War II, but were largely abandoned in the post-war years because of their association with certain Nazi uniforms.

Shoulder panel of motorcycling racing suit after a ca. 150 km/h (ca. 100 mp/h) crash. The rider escaped unharmed.
Currently there are two major styles of motorcycle leathers: the tight fitting and sometimes colorful one or two piece suits based on motorcycle racing leathers; and the somewhat looser fitting leather trousers and jackets, usually black and often decorated with metal studs and tassels. The latter style, the jackets in particular, are also worn by people who are fond of the style but do not ride motorcycles. The classic American Perfecto motorcycle jacket with epaulets and diagonal zipper, made famous by Marlon Brando in The Wild One, (1954) was invented in 1928 by Irving Schott, of Schott NYC in New York City. Leather chaps, adapted from cowboy gear, were used by American bikers starting in the early 1960s.
Many modern leathers have armour on the inside at major impact regions such as shoulders, elbows, hips, knees and back. The energy absorbers and load spreaders range from high density foam to foam backed hard polymers and carbon fibre. It is designed to spread the impact load and shear strains to prevent and reduce harm levels of injury and disablement. In Europe, by law, it has to have a CE mark. However, the present European performance level is considered by some to be very low. They argue that a much higher standard is required, because there are many superior materials and combinations available. There are also motorcycle jackets that use an airbag system, which deploys in the event of an accident, inflating to protect the riders neck, torso, and lower back.
Typically, an accident at a race track will result in the racers sliding, rolling and tumbling for comparatively long distances and long times compared to an accident on the public road. This is because of the large safety run-off areas found on most race tracks; hence racers have a much lower probability of hitting hard vertical solid objects during a crash. Some racing leathers have additional protection properties to increase sliding and decrease bouncing and rotation. Racers mostly hit horizontal surfaces experiencing large high speed shear strains which may cause ligament tears. To decrease or prevent such injuries, most modern racing suits have an area that helps sliding at the knees, shoulders and elbows - often made of titanium, so the rider slides more along the track environment and so decreases the bouncing and rotation through the air, which may cause worse injuries from angular accelerations and rotational forces.
Textile clothing

Armored textile jackets: cordura left and fully ventilated right
Increasingly, motorcyclists are choosing protective equipment constructed of man-made textiles rather than leather due to their improved weather protection, from heat, cold and water, and the increased utility these garments tend to provide in terms of pockets and vents. Common materials include high density (600–1000 Denier) ballistic nylon (e.g., Cordura) and Kevlar (or blends of Kevlar, Cordura, and Lycra) and often include waterproof liners made from materials such as Goretex. These artificial fabrics are said by some motorcyclists to be more comfortable, particularly in warm weather. The textile garments typically take less time to dry out, whereas leather gear may remain wet (and cold) for some time. However, some textile fabrics offer less abrasion protection than leather gear.Textile protective clothing is also nearly always worn over ordinary clothing, whereas leather suits — particularly those manufactured for racing — are not. In addition, synthetic fabrics generally provide better protection from inclement weather. For these reasons, synthetics are often practical for commuters and can help make motorcycles an attractive alternative to four wheeled vehicles.
Not all textile clothing is made from synthetic materials. Heavy weight waxed cotton was used for many years before the development of modern materials, typified by the jackets made by companies such as Belstaff.
Performance claims range for textile motorcycle clothing from somewhat less to somewhat better than competition grade leathers. Key elements of performance include:
strength - the protective clothing must maintain its integrity in the event of a crash
abrasion resistance
ability to slide instead of grabbing tarmac or concrete (grabbing would tumble the rider, likely resulting in greater injury)
heat resistance - whilst sliding the friction with the road can result in enough heat to melt many synthetic materials
ability to stretch and breathe (for comfort).
Additional protection may be provided by armour (CE approved is desirable) and airbag systems.
As with other protective gear, having light colored clothing improves your conspicuity (visibility to other people using the road).
Proper fit
Whatever materials one chooses for one's motorcycle gear, it is important to get the correct fit when purchasing it. Incorrectly fitted garments may result in excessive injury if armour shifts out of position during a riding mishap. Flapping due to loose-fit also creates unnecessary wear and tear, wind drag, noise, and can distract the rider. In the event of a fall, loose garments may grab the road surface, resulting in a tumble rather than a slide. Two piece suits often come with zips to join the jacket and trousers/jeans together, thus improving safety in the event of a crash.
Boots

Detail of racing boot's shin with shin armour and anti torque system
Boots are worn by motorcycle riders and passengers to prevent or reduce harm to their feet and ankles while riding and in the event of a crash. Tough, strong, moderately flexible boots with stiff soles provide the rider protection from a number of risks. Boots with oil-resistant, rubber-based composite soles give a grip on the pavement and help keep the rider's feet on the pegs. If the boots have heels, they should be low and wide to provide a stable base when standing with the bike. In a crash, boots may prevent or reduce foot and ankle injuries. As with jackets and trousers, boots should be designed specifically for motorcycling, using materials and seam construction that are impact, abrasion, cut, tear and burst resistant. Strong, tough, and flexible leather or synthetic fabrics have suitable properties. Boots should also have energy absorbers and load spreaders on the shin, inside and outside of each ankle. A stiff sole working laterally helps prevent or decrease crash injuries caused by crushing and shear strain.
Helmet
A motorcycle helmet is protective headgear used by motorcycle riders. The primary goal of a motorcycle helmet is to protect the rider's head during impact, although many helmets provide additional protection such as a face shield. In some countries the wearing of motorcycle helmets is mandatory.
Helmets are made in 2 main layers: hard and energy-absorbing. The hard shell spreads an impact over a larger area, while the liner (often polystyrene foam) absorbs energy so less is transferred to the skull & brain.
There are 2 main styles: open-face and full-face. An open-face helmet will protect everything but the face. Full-face helmets protect the skull, plus providing protection for the lower jaw as well as the face itself. Full-face helmets offer much more protection than open-face helmets.
Several manufacturers have introduced full-face helmets with a flip-up front, combining the protection of a full-face with the ease of communication and donning / doffing that an open-face gives.
Studies have consistently shown that wearing a helmet:[citation needed]
Reduces injury & increases a rider's chance of surviving a crash
Does not impair vision or hearing
Does not contribute to neck injuries
As with other protective gear, a light colored helmet improves the user's visibility.
Gloves

Motorcycling racing glove
Motorcycling gloves are typically gloves made of leather. They may have gauntlets to protect the rider's wrists from injury, and help reduce drafts while riding in colder climates. Motorcycling gloves typically have reinforced palms intended to protect the rider from abrasion injuries in case of an accident.
Optional features include additional protection or weatherproofing. For touring gloves, such additional features may include advanced insulating materials and waterproof/breathable fabric, although touring gloves may still lack advanced armouring features used in motorcycle racing gloves.
Gloves intended for motorcycle racing typically incorporate precurved finger sections and the best available protection, obtained through additional armour incorporated within the glove. Although maximum tacility is an obvious starting point for racing gloves, additional protection should not be discarded. Additional protection may involve titanium or carbon panels for knuckles and the joints of the fingers. Furthermore, racing gloves may and often do incorporate additional wrist and other protection panels to protect the heel of the hand, back of the hand and other easily injured parts of the hand.

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Wingsuit flying

Wingsuits in flight
Wingsuit flying is the art of flying the human body through the air using a special jumpsuit, called a wingsuit, that shapes the human body into an airfoil which can create lift. The wingsuit creates the airfoil shape with fabric sewn between the legs and under the arms. It is also called a birdman suit or squirrel suit.
A wingsuit can be flown from any point that provides sufficient altitude to glide through the air, such as skydiving aircraft or BASE jumping exit points.
The wingsuit flier wears parachute equipment designed for skydiving or BASE jumping. The flier will deploy the parachute at a planned altitude and unzip the arm wings, if necessary, so they can reach up to the control toggles and fly to a normal parachute landing.

History
Wings were first used in the 1930s as an attempt to increase horizontal movement. These early wingsuits were made of materials such as canvas, wood, silk, steel, and even whale bone. They were not very reliable. According to wingsuit lore, between 1930 and 1961, 72 of the 75 original birdmen died testing their wingsuits. Some of these so-called "birdmen," most notably Clem Sohn and Leo Valentin, claimed to have glided for miles and inspired dozens of imitators.
In the mid-1990s, French skydiver Patrick de Gayardon (nicknamed "DeG") developed a wingsuit that had unparalleled safety and performance. Unfortunately, de Gayardon died on April 13, 1998 while testing a new modification to his parachute container in Hawaii; his death is attributed to a rigging error which was part of the new modification. However, he planted the seed that grew a new generation of birdmen.
In 1998, Jari Kuosma of Finland and Robert Pecnik of Croatia teamed up to create a wingsuit that was safe and accessible for all skydivers when they established BirdMan, Inc. BirdMan's Classic, designed by Robert Pecnik, was the first wingsuit offered to the general public. BirdMan was also the first manufacturer to advocate the safe use of wingsuits by creating an Instructor program. Created by Jari Kuosma, the instructor program's aim was to remove the stigma that wingsuits were dangerous and to provide wingsuit beginners (Generally, skydivers with a minimum of 200 logged jumps) with a way to safely enjoy what was once considered dangerous in the skydiving world. With the help of Birdman Chief Instructors Scott Campos, Chuck Blue and Kim Griffin, a standardized program of instruction was developed that preprared instructors."Bird-Man Worldwide Instructors list" (HTML). Retrieved on 2008-01-28. Phoenix-Fly, Fly Your Body, and EG Wingsuits have also instituted an instructor training program.
Innovations
Numerous suppliers have made many innovations over the last decade:
Loïc Jean-Albert developed a one-wing design which was manufactured and marketed by Parasport Italia as the Crossbow in 2000 Loic has since set up the wingsuit company Fly Your Body. In 2004 Robert Pecnik launched his own wingsuit company, Phoenix-Fly, contracting with Atair Aerodynamics to manufacture the suits. With a new level of safety and performance, the wingsuit pilots are back and rapidly growing.
Christian Stadler of Gladbeck designed three wingsuits between 2001 and 2006. The development included a narrow arm wing down to the ankle, a longer narrow leg wing and semi rigid wings from carbon fibre and high density foam. Later he did modifications to wingsuits like the "wing gloves". He organized the first international wingsuit competition with prize money "SkyJester´s Wings over Marl" in 2005. Followed by S´WoM 2006 and S´WoM 2007. His VegaV3 system uses an electronic adjustable hydrogen peroxide rocket. This rocket provided 100 kgf of thrust, it produces no flames or poisonous fumes. His first powered jump was in 2007.
On October 25th of 2005 in Lahti Finland, the BirdMan Rocket Team successfully experimented with small jet engines attached to the feet of BirdMan Visa Parviainen. The jets provided approximately 16 kgf of thrust each and ran on kerosene (JetA-1) fuel. Visa was able to achieve approximately 30 seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude. Once the fuel ran out, Visa continued to fly in normal Birdman flight until deployment altitude. Deployment and landing were uneventful. The flight was considered a success as it proved that level human flight was not only possible but sustainable with the use of jet engines and a Birdman suit. Similarly successful experiments have also been undertaken with the SkyRay wing system. Visa Parviainen made a second flight in February of 2006, with similar results. [1]
In 2006 Tony Uragallo of Tony Suits in Zephyrhills developed a new generation of wingsuits that feature easy donning (very much like camera suits) and "webbies" (integrated webbed gloves).
In 2007 Edgardo Guerrero of EG Suits and Nick Rugai of Nitro Rigging developed and introduced a new gamma of high performance wingsuits that incorporate new design features and the use of different materials.
Mechanics
The wingsuit flier enters freefall wearing both a wingsuit and parachute equipment. Exiting an aircraft in a wingsuit requires learned techniques that differ depending on the location and size of the aircraft door. These techniques include the orientation relative to the aircraft and the airflow while exiting, and the way in which the flier will spread their legs and arms at the proper time so as not to hit the aircraft or become unstable in the relative wind. The wingsuit will immediately start to fly upon exiting the aircraft in the relative wind generated by the forward speed of the aircraft. Exiting from a BASE jumping site, such as a cliff, or exiting from a helicopter or hot air balloon, is fundamentally different from exiting a moving aircraft as the initial wind speed upon exit is absent. In these situations a vertical drop using the forces of gravity to accelerate is required to generate the airspeed that the wingsuit can then convert to lift.
At a planned altitude above the ground in which a skydiver or BASE jumper would typically deploy their parachute, a wingsuit flier will deploy their parachute. The parachute will be flown to a controlled landing at the desired landing spot using typical skydiving or BASE jumping techniques. At least one organization is investigating the possibility of a safe landing without a parachute.[2] However, most Wingsuit flyers[who?] believe the "runway" requirements of a parachute-less landing today make the attempt premature and the results will not likely yield anything more than a sensational video for the purposes of self-promotion.[original research?] The quest of landing a Wingsuit is not sought by the majority of Wingsuit flyers.[original research?]
A wingsuit flier manipulates the shape of their body to create the desired amount of lift and drag. With body shape manipulation and by choosing the design characteristics of the wingsuit, a flier can alter both their forward speed and their fall rate towards the Earth. A pilot can choose to manipulate their fall rate towards Earth with the goal of achieving the slowest vertical speed in order to prolong time in freefall, or the pilot can try to maximize the horizontal glide distance across the Earth. The pilot manipulates these flight characteristics by changing the shape of their torso, arching or bending at the shoulders, hips, and knees, and by changing the angle of attack in which the wingsuit flies in the relative wind, and by the amount of tension applied to the fabric wings of the suit.
Wingsuit fliers can measure their performance relative to their goals with the use of freefall computers that will indicate the amount of time they were in flight, at what altitude they deployed their parachute, and the altitude in which they entered freefall. The fall rate speed can be calculated from this data and compared to previous flights. GPS receivers can also be used to plot and record the flight path of the suit, and when analyzed can indicate the amount of distance flown during the flight. BASE jumpers can use landmarks on exit points, along with recorded video of their flight by ground crews, to determine their performance relative to previous flights and the flights of other BASE jumpers at the same site.
A typical skydiver's terminal velocity in belly to earth orientation ranges from 110 to 140 mph or from 180 to 225 km/h. A wingsuit can reduce these speeds dramatically, a momentary speed of 25 mph or 40 km/h has been recorded, however 60 mph or 95 km/h is more typical.
The suit also enables the wearer to travel longer distances horizontally; glide ratios of 2.5:1 are commonplace.
While still very experimental, powered wingsuits, often using small jet engines strapped to the feet or a rigid wing set-up, allow for even greater horizontal travel and even ascent.
Currently, there are two basic wingsuit types. The tri-wing Wingsuit has three individual ram-air wings attached under the arms and between the legs. The mono-wing wing suit design incorporates the whole suit into one large wing.
Training
The United States Parachute Association (USPA) recommends in the Skydivers Information Manual, that any jumper flying a wingsuit for the first time have at least 200 jumps and be accompanied by an instructor or 500 jumps experience without instruction.
Wingsuit manufacturers offer training courses and certify instructors.

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Tracksuit

Tracksuit jackets made of nylon

A model of tracksuit used as casual wear
A tracksuit is an article of clothing consisting of two parts- trousers and a jacket. It was originally intended for use in sports, mainly as what athletes wore over competition clothing (such as running shirt and shorts or a swimsuit) and would take off before competition. In modern times, it has become commonly worn in other contexts.
Tracksuits were very popular with the hip hop and breakdancing scene of the 1980s. During this period tracksuits were manufactured from a mix of triacetate and polyester making them extremely shiny on the outside - ideal for breakdancing on smooth floors and yet fleecy on the inside ensuring comfort for the wearer.
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History
The term 'tracksuit' was first coined in 1921 by Great British Olympic 200m track athlete Dr. Oliver Johnson Schofield, who used the expression to describe the soft, lightweight two-piece-suit he always wore over his shorts and running vest while training - interestingly he would often wear a loosely knotted tie with the tracksuit during competition, often remarking a gentleman should never been seen in a suit without a necktie.
The film Chariots of Fire depicts the 1924 US olympic team as wearing tracksuits consisting of grey sweatshirts and jogging bottoms. The science fiction story The Man Who Evolved, published in April 1931, mentions a "loose white running suit". In the 1978 book Naples '44, travel writer Norman Lewis refers to the dyeing of thermal underwear to be resold as tracksuits during the Second World War. The OED records an early use of the term in 1952.
Beginning in 1964, Adidas began to produce tracksuits as leisure wear . These had the distinctive Adidas three stripes, zipped trouser bottoms and collars, and stirrups, features which remained popular for decades. However, on the whole during this decade, tracksuits were plain dark-coloured garments used exclusively as sportswear. Their real emergence as a fashion item began in the '70s. Suits from firm gloss nylon jersey were produced, jackets and trousers being narrowly cut. From the '80s onwards, jogging suits made from cotton jersey became popular, tapering towards the cuffs of the sleeves and trousers as well as at the bottom and neck of the jacket. As a result, both jacket and trousers assumed a rather puffed-out shape. Sometimes the tops were hooded. Meanwhile a completely new kind of tracksuit appeared, intended for jogging rather than warming up. This consisted of two weights of fabric: a light, silky exterior resembling parachute material consisting of nylon or polyester, and lining made from a lighter, often net-like, textile. In the 1990s, tracksuits became very fashionable, though jackets and trousers tended to be worn separately rather than as a suit, and in fact were generally available as separate items. Tracksuit tops disappeared nearly completely as sportswear. Trousers were worn in new variations of the '70s versions, namely parachute trousers and jogging bottoms. In bodybuilding subculture, new styles of bottoms emerged, which were carrot-shaped with broad elasticated waists - and shirts of different kinds developed. These were also worn outside the fitness scene to some extent. Complete suits were uncommon in this context. However tracksuits in '70s and '80s styles made a comeback in techno and hip-hop subculture and as clubwear. During the early 2000s, brands such as Juicy Couture popularised velour suits as high fashion. From the late 1980s tracksuits were in fashion, however today, in the UK, they are largely seen as the common form of dress of chavs.
In the US, however, variations on tracksuits are still, in some circles, completely acceptable forms of casual wear, although the items are more commonly worn as separates - a hoodie and coordinating, but not matching, sweatpants or yoga pants, for example. It's rare to see someone wearing an entire, matching tracksuit. That type of outfit is more commonly seen on elderly people, and is not considered fashionable, with the exception of the New Jersey - Staten Island - Brooklyn area, where it continues to be fashionable blue-collar leisure wear in certain circles; in popular culture, this conceit is perhaps most iconically demonstrated on the television show The Sopranos, in which the New Jersey Mafia is usually depicted either wearing business attire or track suits.
In the film Game of Death, Bruce Lee famously wore a yellow tracksuit instead of more traditional kung fu clothing. He did this to demonstrate that Jeet Kune Do was a modern purely practical way of fighting and not the pretentious art of traditional kung fu. This signature tracksuit was also worn by Uma Thurman in the film(s) Kill Bill, as an homage to Bruce Lee.
Tracksuits as the clothing choice of certain subcultures
Tracksuits are associated (stereotypically) with the chav subculture in the UK but for a much longer time it has been associated with "Scousers", seen on Harry Enfield and Chums from the early 90's. Tracksuits are also often associated with Hip hop fashion especially with Old school hip-hop. This is because, as stated earlier, tracksuits provide easy mobility for breakdancing due to the fact that they are loose-fitting as well as its ability to slide on smooth surfaces by providing minimal friction.

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Suit (history)

The man's suit of clothes is a set of garments which are crafted from the same cloth. This article discusses the history of the lounge suit, often called a business suit when made in dark colours and of conservative cut.

Our current styles were founded in the revolution during the early 17th century that sharply changed the elaborately embroidered and jeweled formal clothing into the simpler clothing of the Regency period, which gradually evolved to the stark formality of the Victorian era. It was in the search for more comfort that the loosing of rules gave rise in the late 19th century to our modern lounge suit.


The Man’s suit

Johann Christian Fischer in matching coat, waistcoat, and breeches, by Thomas Gainsborough, ca. 1780.
The suit is a traditional form of men’s formal clothes in the Western world. For some four hundred years, suits of matching coat, trousers, and waistcoat have been in and out of fashion. The modern lounge suit’s derivation is visible in the outline of the brightly-coloured, elaborately-crafted royal court dress of the 17th century (suit, wig, knee breeches), which was shed because of the French Revolution. This evolution is seen more recently in British tailoring’s use of steam and padding in moulding woolen cloth, the rise and fall in popularity of the necktie, and the gradual disuse of waistcoats and hats in the last fifty years.

The modern lounge suit appeared in the late 19th century, but traces its origins to the simplified, sartorial standard of dress established by the British king Charles II in the 17th century. In 1666, the restored monarch, Charles II, per the example of King Louis XIV’s court at Versailles, decreed that in the English Court men would wear a long coat, a waistcoat (then called "petticoat"), a cravat (a precursor of the necktie), a wig, and knee breeches (trousers), and a hat.


Regency
In the early 1800s, British dandy Beau Brummell redefined and adapted this style, then popularised it, leading European men to wearing well-cut, tailored clothes, adorned with elaborately knotted neckties. The simplicity of the new clothes and their sombre colours contrasted strongly with the extravagant styles just before. Brummell's influence introduced the modern era of men's clothing which now includes the modern suit and necktie. Moreover, he introduced a whole new era of grooming and style, including regular (daily) bathing as part of a man's toilet.[1]

In this regency period, the predominant upper-class clothing introduced by Brummel for day wear was a tightly fitting, brightly coloured tailcoat with non-matching trousers and tall boots.


Victorian
Towards the start of the Victorian period, the frock coat, initially not just black, became popular, and quickly became the standard daily clothing for gentlemen. From the middle of the 19th century, a new (then informal) coat, the morning coat, became acceptable. It was a less formal garment, with a cut away front, making it suitable for wearing while riding. Morning dress and the frock coat garments were not suits, because they were worn with odd trousers; a matching waistcoat and trousers were considered informal, clothes described as such in the short-lived term "ditto suit".[2][3] The frock coat was still the standard garment for all formal or business occasions, and a tailcoat was worn in the evenings.

Towards the end of the 19th century, the modern lounge suit was born as a very informal garment meant only to be worn for sports, in the country, or at the seaside.


Three men in black tie variations.
Parallel to this, the dinner jacket was invented and came to be worn for informal evening events. It was descended from white tie (the dress code associated with the evening tailcoat), and started off as just a tailcoat with the tails cut off, but quickly became a full new garment, the dinner jacket, with a new dress code, initially known as 'dress lounge' and later black tie. When it was imported to the United States, it became known as the tuxedo or the penguin. The 'dress lounge' was originally worn only for small private gatherings and white tie ('White tie and tails') was still worn for large formal events. The 'dress lounge' slowly became more popular for larger events as an alternative to full evening dress in white tie.


Edwardian

In 1901, the smart man wore a morning coat.
The new century brought a steady decline in the wearing of frock coats as the morning coat rose in relative formality, first becoming acceptable for businessmen, then becoming standard dress even in town. The lounge suit was slowly accepted as being correct outside its original settings, and during Edwardian times gradually began to be seen in town. While still reserved for private gatherings, usually with no ladies, black tie became more common.

In North America, the "sack suit", a cut of lounge suit, saw a large rise in popularity, and, except for the shoulders, it is unfitted, loose, and informal, as it has no darts.


Inter-war

At the Treaty of Versailles signing, in 1919, the heads of state wore morning dress and lounge suits for informal meetings, but frock coats for formal daytime meetings.
After the end of the first World War, most men adopted the short lounge coated suit. Long coats quickly went out of fashion for everyday wear and business, and the morning coat gained its current classification of "formal". During the 1920s, short suits were always worn except on formal occasions when a morning coat would be worn for formal occasions in the daytime; old conservative men continued to wear a frock coat, or "Prince Albert coat" as it was known. In America, for evening occasions, the short dinner jacket virtually replaced the long "full dress" tails, which was perceived as "old hat" and was only worn by old conservative men. In Britain, black tie became acceptable as a general informal alternative to white tie, though at the time the style and accessories of black tie were still very fluid.

In the 1920s men began wearing wide straight legged trousers with their suits. These trousers normally measured 23 inches around the cuff. Younger men often wore even wider legged trousers which were known as "Oxford Bags." Trousers also began to be worn cuffed shortly after World War I and this style persisted until World War II. Trousers first began to be worn creased in the 1920s. Trousers were worn very highly-waisted throughout the 1920s and this fashion remained in vogue until the 1940s. Single-breasted suits were in style throughout the 1920s and the double-breasted suit was mainly worn by older more conservative men. In the 1920s, very fashionable men would often wear double-breasted waistcoasts (with four buttons on each side) with single-breasted coats. Lapels on single-breasted suits were fashionably worn peaked and were often wide. In the early 1930s these styles continued and were often even further exaggerated.

Before 1935 (and again in the 1970s) men preferred snugly-tailored coats and waistcoats, however, since then, the mainstream trend has been for looseness. In 1935, a complete change in style occurred. Loose fitting coats were introduced, trousers began to be tapered at the bottom and suit coats began to have tapered arms. These new trends were only reluctantly accepted by men at first. At first the waistcoat continued to be made in the traditional fitted and snug style. By 1940, the waistcoat began to be made in a loose style which made it uncomfortable to wear. In fashion magazines of the day, men complained how these new vests continually rode up when they happen to sit down or bend over. Fashionable men changed their preference to the double-breasted suit coat at this time and it would remain in fashion for the next two decades.

By this time, morning dress was being replaced by day time semi-formal, known in America as the stroller. This was quite popular, but has actually been outlived by morning dress, which continues to be worn, while the stroller is now largely gone.


Post-war
Throughout the 1940s and 1950s the trend had been to simplify and modernize the suit as much as possible. For example, by the 1960s the size of the lapel had shrunk to a very small size. Suit coats were also cut as straight as possible without any indication of a waistline. Cloth rationning changed styles significantly, contributing to a large reduction in the popularity of many cuts, such as the double-breasted suit.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s the Nehru jacket style was worn by a few in the United States — Johnny Carson for example.

In the 1970s, a snug-fitting suit coat became popular once again and this style permitted the return of the waistcoat. This new three-piece suit style became associated with disco music and its culture, specifically popularised by the film Saturday Night Fever, where the tight waistcoat was basic to that fashion. The tight three-piece suit was equated with the discothèque culture. The socially conservative backlash against disco music culture ended the popularity of snug-fitting three piece suits.

The 1980s saw a trend towards the simplification of the suit once again. The jacket became looser and the waistcoat was completely dispensed with. A few suit makers continued to make waistcoats, but these tended to be cut very low and often had only four buttons. The waistline on the suit coat went down again in the 1980s to a position well below the waist. By 1985-1986, three-piece suits were on the way out and making way for cut double-breasted suits and two piece single-breasted.


Women's suits

Women's walking suits, 1894, from the Butterick pattern company's Delineator
The earliest women's suits were riding habits, which consisted of a tailored coat or jacket and matching skirt from the 1660s. Practical and sturdy, riding habits were worn not only on horseback, but also for travel and other daytime pursuits. Suits not intended for riding appeared in the later 19th century. Both riding habits and walking suits reflected the skirt and sleeve styles of the day.

In the first half of the 20th century, the skirted suit became the common daytime city costume for women, in the workplace and out; dressmaker suits featured softer fabrics and "feminine" details, and cocktail suits were worn for semi-formal occasions in mid-century.

Under the influence of Dress for Success, a working woman's uniform of skirted suit, tailored shirt, and floppy tie evolved in the 1970s and 1980s. Pantsuits (women's suits with trousers) were introduced by designer André Courrèges in 1964 but were only gradually accepted as formal business attire.


Influence of casual dress
Over the past half-century, the wearing of suits has become far less common than it once was and is now restricted almost entirely to formal and business activities. During the 1990s, many businesses in North America adopted casual dress codes, beginning with "casual Fridays" and then extending to the entire business week. The abandonment of a uniform dress code has led to considerable confusion over what is considered appropriate business wear. More recently, some businesses have reinforced the wearing of suits, although they may never again be as common as they once were. A similar trend has occurred in Europe.


Contemporary trends
Although the man's tailored suit is commonly perceived as the ultimate conservative costume of Western culture, extravagant variations on the tailored suit have been adopted by many subcultures over the last century as a matter of fashion or social identity. As early as 1922, Emily Post addressed what she termed the "freak American suit" in her influential guide Etiquette:
You will see it everywhere, on Broadway of every city and Main Street of every town, on the boardwalks and beaches of coast resorts, and even in remote farming villages. It comes up to hit you in the face year after year in all its amazing variations: waist-line under the arm pits, "trick" little belts, what-nots in the cuffs; trousers so narrow you fear they will burst before your eyes, pockets placed in every position, buttons clustered together in a tight little row or reduced to one. Such progressive styles may not reflect the international tastes or etiquette.

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